21st International Conference of The Coastal Society DEALING WITH KNOWLEDGE AND PERCEPTIONS IN COMPLEX COASTAL ISSUES Saskia Hommes, University of Twente, The Netherlands. Henriëtte S. Otter, Deltares, The Netherlands. Suzanne J.M.H. Hulscher, University of Twente, The Netherlands. Hans Th.A. Bressers, University of Twente, The Netherlands. Jan P.M. Mulder, Deltares, The Netherlands. Abstract In complex coastal issues knowledge is uncertain and divergent actors perceptions are caused by disagreement on values and ambiguity about knowledge. We argue to use a process-oriented approach to handle these complex coastal issues. Our arguments are based on a combination of literature and findings from two case studies. A process-oriented approach involves divergent perceptions and enhances cognitive and strategic learning. Consequently, an agreed upon and valid knowledge base of a problem-solution combination is more likely. Introduction Coastal management issues affect a variety of users and they therefore often exhibit complex, unstructured/wicked problems (Van de Graaf and Hoppe, 1996). The complex, unstructured nature of these problems originates from uncertain knowledge and from the existence of divergent perceptions among various actors. In literature many authors support the point of view that for complex, unstructured problems a process-oriented approach should be adopted, which pays attention to participation, interaction, communication and divergent perceptions (e.g.: Edelenbos et al., 2003). Besides, many authors claim that a content-oriented or analytical approach, in which the problem is assumed to be exclusively of a technical nature and focuses on single-actor complexity and reducing substantive uncertainty, is inadequate for complex issues (Arentsen et al., 2000; Hoppe, 1999; Van de Riet, 2003). In this paper, we present results from two case studies of complex coastal issues. The first study on the impact assessment of the extension of Mainport Rotterdam, is an example of a content-oriented approach to problem handling. In the second study, on the sustainable development of the Delta region of the Netherlands, a process-oriented approach is used. Based on literature on process-oriented approaches, we expect the following results for our case studies. A content-oriented approach causes problems with divergent actors perceptions, as it mainly focuses on reducing uncertainty in the knowledge base. A process-oriented approach enhances convergence of actors perceptions and 142
produces agreed upon and valid knowledge about the problem-solution combination. In this paper, we aim to investigate these hypotheses. Conceptual Framework for Problem Handling We conceptualize problem handling along two tracks: the development of actors perceptions and the production of a knowledge base. Actors perceptions are based on frames, which function as filters through which information or a problematic situation is interpreted (Rein and Schön, 1993). Actors perceptions consist of cognitive and normative elements. Fig. 1 shows that differences in cognitive elements may result in ambiguous interpretations of the knowledge base. Furthermore, actors behold different values (normative elements), which may lead to differences in valuation and thus disagreement. Consequently, dealing with complex, unstructured problems is not just a knowledge problem (i.e. dealing with uncertainty); it is a problem of disagreement and ambiguity too. Fig. 1 Elements of actors perceptions During the process of problem handling actors from both the scientific (or expert) arena and the practical (lay or non-scientific) arena contribute their knowledge (cognitive elements, Fig. 2). To deal with ambiguity and disagreement actors should not only contribute their knowledge, they should also be stimulated to reflect upon the knowledge base. This insures that actors learn about the nature, causes and effects of the problem, i.e. cognitive learning. Furthermore, as actors interact with each other, they become aware of their mutual interdependencies and of other actors perceptions, i.e. strategic learning. We claim that both cognitive and strategic learning are important to enhance the convergence of actors perceptions. However, to arrive at a joint formulation of a problem-solution combination, the convergence of perceptions does not suffice. A valid and useful knowledge base is needed to deal with uncertainty and ambiguity. We state that for this purpose different knowledge sources scientific and practical should be integrated (e.g. by the process managers), to create a context-specific knowledge base. Such a knowledge base is needed to deal with specific coastal problems, e.g. coastal erosion in an area where 143
different users are in conflict. Fig. 2 schematizes the production of a knowledge base and the related learning processes. Fig. 2 Production of a knowledge base and related learning processes Case Study 1: Impact assessment for Extension of Mainport Rotterdam The first case study is on the decision-making process for the extension of Mainport Rotterdam, one of the largest ports in the world. The Dutch government wants to expand the Mainport by land reclamation in the North Sea. This may affect the Wadden Sea, a unique wetlands area protected by the European Bird and Habitat Directives. To assess the impact of the port extension on the Wadden Sea, an impact assessment was carried out. The Dutch Fish Product Board objected to the extension of Mainport Rotterdam. Their formal problem perception was based on ecological and procedural grounds. However, their implicit problem perception is a wider, socio-economic problem: dissatisfaction with the decision-making process, concern about income losses due to the loss of fishing area, where no (financial) compensation was arranged for the fishing industry. However, the parties that executed the impact assessment perceived the problem to be procedural and technical. Thus, the investigations only focused on the formal problem perceptions of the objector, not taking into account the implicit socio-economical problem of the objector. Therefore, the socio-economic problem of the Dutch Fish Product Board was not eliminated by these technical investigations. Case Study 2: Sustainable Development of the Delta Region (NL) The second case study focuses on the sustainable development of ecology, economy and society in the Delta region in the southwest of the Netherlands. In several areas in this region, ecological quality has decreased due to engineering works for storm surge safety (the Delta Works, Colijn and Binnendijk, 1998). The Dutch government regards the re-establishment of estuarine dynamics in the area as the most important solution to improve the ecological quality. However, re-establishment of estuarine dynamics will affect other functions and users, e.g.: farmers. The problem has been addressed in a discussion with all relevant actors. We observed two extremes in problem formulations: an economy- 144
oriented (agriculture on the islands is important for socio-economic reasons) and an ecology-oriented (the Delta Works negatively affect the ecological system). Between the start and closure of the process, one or more elements of the actors problem perceptions were adjusted. For example, a farmer argued before the process that the re-establishment of estuarine dynamics is no option for farmers. However, at the end of the process the same farmer prefers the re-establishment of estuarine dynamics. Nevertheless, his main objective, a continuous supply of freshwater all year round, never changed. This supports the idea that part of the perceptions is static and part is dynamic (Sabatier, 1988). Even though perceptions converged as a result of cognitive learning, we observed that actors perceptions did not become identical. However, as an agreement (covenant) was reached, actors also learned about their mutual dependencies and each others positions; strategic learning. For more information on the two case studies we refer to Hommes et al. (2007; 2008). Conclusions In this paper, we analyzed the differences in the role of actors perceptions and the knowledge base between two decision-making approaches, in two case studies. We conclude from the case study on the extension of Mainport Rotterdam, that the investigations focused on single-actor complexity and reducing uncertainty in the knowledge base. This resulted in a valid, contextspecific knowledge base. However, the diverging actors perceptions (multiactor complexity) were not addressed in the investigations. Therefore, no cognitive and strategic learning could take place. This resulted in a lack of consensus on the final impact assessment, thus no joint formulation of the problem-solution combination. Finally, it can be concluded that a contentoriented approach indeed causes problems with diverging actors perceptions. In the case study on the sustainable development of the Delta region of the Netherlands, the formulation of the agreement resulted from two learning processes: cognitive and strategic learning. Furthermore, the case study showed that it is possible to mix diverging perceptions, objectives, interpretations, valuations and knowledge sources scientific and practical and use this as a basis for the formulation of a problem-solution combination is supported by all actors. The resulting knowledge base is a context-specific interpretation of available information. We conclude that a process-oriented approach enhances the development of agreed upon and valid knowledge about the problemsolution combination. Our case study findings, together with literature, form an argument for practitioners in coastal management to choose a process-oriented approach for dealing with complex issues. We claim that in such a process of problem handling it is necessary to stimulate actors to: reflect upon their perception and those of others; contribute their own knowledge and reflect upon the knowledge base; and integrate different knowledge sources and knowledge fields. 145
Acknowledgements This research was supported by the applied science division of NWO and the technology programme of the Ministry of Economic Affairs of the Netherlands References Arentsen, M. J., Bressers, H. T. A., and O'Toole, L. J. (2000). "Institutional and policy responses to uncertainty in environmental policy: A comparison of Dutch and US styles." Policy Studies Journal, 28(3), 597-611. Colijn, C. J., and Binnendijk, A. C. (1998). "Physical planning in the coastal region of Zeeland, The Netherlands." Journal of Coastal Conservation, 4(2), 135. Edelenbos, J., Monnikhof, R., and Van de Riet, O. (2003). "A Double Helix approach: a proposal to forge a better integration of analysis and policy development." International Journal of Technology Policy and Management, 3(1), 1-21. Hommes, S., Hulscher, S. J. M. H., Mulder, J. P. M., Otter, H. S., and Bressers, J. T. A. (2008). "Perceptions and knowledge in decision-making processes: Lessons from Mainport Rotterdam." Marine Policy (accepted). Hommes, S., Vinke-de Kruijf, J., Otter, H. S., and Bouma, G. (2007). "Knowledge and Perceptions in Participatory Policy Processes: Lessons from the Delta-region in the Netherlands." (submitted). Hoppe, R. (1999). "Argumentative turn - Policy analysis, science and politics: from 'speaking truth to power' to 'making sense together'." Science and Public Policy, 26(3), 201-210. Rein, M., and Schön, D. A. (1993). "Reframing Policy Discourse." The argumentative turn in policy analysis and planning, F. Fischer and J. Forester, eds., London: UCL Press, p. 145. Sabatier, P. A. (1988). "An advocacy coalition framework of policy change and the role of policy-oriented learning therein." Policy Sciences, 21(2-3), 129. Van de Graaf, H., and Hoppe, R. (1996). Beleid en politiek: een inleiding tot de beleidswetenschap en de beleidskunde, 3e dr; 1e dr.: 1989, Coutinho, Bussum. Van de Riet, A. W. T. (2003). "Policy analysis in multi-actor policy settings: navigating between negotiated nonsense and superfluous knowledge ", Technische Universiteit Delft, Delft: Eburon Publishers, Ph.D. thesis. Van de Graaf, H., and Hoppe, R. (1996). Beleid en politiek: een inleiding tot de beleidswetenschap en de beleidskunde, 3e dr; 1e dr.: 1989, Coutinho, Bussum. Saskia Hommes University of Twente, Department of Water Engineering & Management P.O. Box 217 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands Ph (+31) 53-4892821 Fax (+31) 53-4895377 s.hommes@utwente.nl 146