The Bologna Process and Internationalization Consequences for Italian Academic Life

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236629005 The Bologna Process and Internationalization Consequences for Italian Academic Life Article in Higher Education in Europe October 2009 DOI: 10.1080/03797720903355521 CITATIONS 4 READS 168 6 authors, including: Helena Aittola University of Jyväskylä 6 PUBLICATIONS 30 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Jani Ursin University of Jyväskylä 25 PUBLICATIONS 71 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE Available from: Mira Huusko Retrieved on: 12 May 2016

Higher Education in Europe, Vol. 34, Nos. 3 4, October December 2009 The Bologna Process and Internationalization Consequences for Italian Academic Life HELENA AITTOLA, ULLA KIVINIEMI, SANNA HONKIMÄKI, REETTA MUHONEN, MIRA HUUSKO and JANI URSIN CHEE_A_435730.sgm 10.1080/03797720903355521 Higher 0379-7724 Original 2009 Taylor 34 3-4 000000October-December HelenaAittola helena.aittola@ktl.jyu.fi and & Education Article Francis (print)/1469-8358 Europe2009 (online) The main aim of this study was to explore if there is a connection between the Bologna Process and the internationalization themes and practices of Italian academic life from an academic s point of view. The study was based on a qualitative approach and the interview data were analyzed by qualitative content analysis. The following main themes emerged concerning the internationalization of Italian academic life: the internationalization of teaching and studies, student and staff mobility, and the internationalization of academic work and career. The Bologna Process seems to have both direct and indirect consequences for internationalization. The international student and teacher exchanges have become easier but at the same time the pressures of academics work have increased in teaching and research. Introduction The higher education sector in Europe has undergone reform processes based on several European conventions and communiqués: Sorbonne (1998), Bologna (1999), Prague (2001), Berlin (2003), Bergen (2005) and London (2007). The goal of these reforms is to enhance the emergence of a harmonious European Higher Education Area by 2010 (European Commission, 2007). Since the mid-1990s, internationalization has become one of the main thematic areas in higher education publications. The most frequently discussed themes include the mobility of academic staff and students as well as the internationalization of the substance of teaching, learning, and research (Kehm and Teichler, 2007). Though the national level has an important influence on the international dimension in higher education through policy, funding, programmes, and regulatory frameworks it is usually at the individual and institutional level where the real process of internationalization is taking place (Knight, 2004). The main goals of the Bologna Process underline the international aspects of higher education processes and structures. The European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) was introduced at the same time as the university three-cycle degree structure reform. The mobility of staff and students is one of the core elements of the process, developing international cooperation between individuals and institutions, enhancing the quality of higher education and research, and creating opportunities for personal growth (London Communiqué, 2007). Short-term intra-european student mobility has spread considerably as a consequence of the establishment of the Erasmus programme in 1987 (Rivza and Teichler, 2007). Internationally active teachers inspire the mobility of their students and bring an international dimension to their teaching (Garam, 2007). Universities are expected to take part actively in EU education programmes and act as active members in regional or thematic European university networks. The balance ISSN 0379-7724 print/issn 1469-8358 online/09/3 40303-10 2009 UNESCO DOI: 10.1080/03797720903355521

304 H. AITTOLA ET AL. between incoming and outgoing students is one indicator for evaluating the extent of mobility. Teaching and learning of foreign languages is another factor enhancing international activities. In the same vein, European cooperation in quality assurance has also been taken as an important aim (Ursin et al., 2008). Thus, the internationalization processes has manifested in various ways in academic life. In this study the different aspects of internationalization of academic work are examined at the institutional level and from the perspective of individual academics in the context of Italian higher education. Internationalization of Italian Higher Education The higher education sector in Italy has undergone a reform process to align itself with the European model outlined through a series of European agreements (Agasisti and Dal Bianco, 2008). According to the European model, the Italian reform provides a system subdivided into three separate sectors, of which university education is one. The university is the seat of education and the critical transmission of knowledge; it systematically combines research and teaching and assures their freedom. University management is based on the principles of autonomy and responsibility. Universities have adopted new autonomy statutes which establish their governing bodies (rector, Senato Accademico, board of management) as well as their teaching and research structures ( The Education System in Italy, 2007). Teaching reform, in accordance with the Bologna Process in 1999, focused on the duty of institutions to introduce study courses in line with regulations on the planning of the university system, the changes of the names of the degrees and the Diploma Supplement. The reshaping of university courses was implemented from the first year of the new university courses; after that, it has been gradually extended to the following years. The main stages of the specific legislative framework in this reform concentrated on increasing the organizational, didactic and financial autonomy of universities; reformation of the university teaching structure, and enhancing the quality of teaching offered to students (Agasisti and Dal Bianco, 2008). Students may participate in international university co-operation programmes and student exchanges. Each institution deliberates on the recognition of qualifications obtained abroad as far as the admission to its study courses is concerned, in compliance with European Union regulations and directives and international agreements in force. In 2004 more autonomy and flexibility was given to universities in defining the curricular contents. In addition, according to the European harmonization and international integration of the university system, the idea of internationalization was enforced by legislation ( The Education System in Italy, 2007.) Intercultural education in Italy includes a European dimension with reference to content-wise adjustments and methodological approaches to promote the idea of European citizenship. These aspects indicate the development of historical awareness and a sense of belonging with regard not only to the local and national community, but also to Europe. It has been noted that the trend of internal mobility in Italy is strongly related to international mobility ( The Education System in Italy, 2007). As defined in Italian national policy guidelines, the development strategy for the European dimension follows two lines: the political line and the technical line. The political line ensures certain necessary reforms of the education system: for example,

THE BOLOGNA PROCESS AND INTERNATIONALIZATION 305 reinforcing language teaching, reducing the number of drop-outs, organizing a system of guidance and orientation. The technical line concentrates on the organization of programmes for co-operation, mobility and exchanges ( The Education System in Italy, 2007). The percentage of Italian students in tertiary education studying abroad in the years 1998 2004 has remained below 2 per cent, which is below the EU average. This percentage seems still to be quite low for European countries in general: for the great majority of European countries the percentage of students studying abroad was less than 3 per cent in 2004. Mobility depends largely on support for its growth, for example financial assistance offered to students by education systems as an incentive to study abroad (Delhaxhe et al., 2009). The mobility of university students is continuously increasing outside institutional projects; that is, based on personal initiatives and on the initiative of a particular university ( The Education System in Italy, 2007). It seems that doctoral students are the most mobile group of students at the European level. European student mobility has benefited from the trend towards greater similarity in the structure and academic recognition of study programmes. Research Task, Data and Analysis Higher education institutions have changed their curriculum and study processes in order to implement the basic goals of the Bologna Process. The main task of this study was to explore if there is a connection between the Bologna Process and the internationalization themes and practices of Italian academic life from the academics point of view. The data were gathered by semi-structured interviews in autumn 2006 in Rome either with individuals (n = 10) or with focus groups (n = 2). The Italian interviewees were selected from five higher education institutions, of which three were public universities and one was a private university, and one participant represented a public research institute. The group consisted mainly of academic staff (Ursin et al., 2008). The interview dealt with questions about the degree system and the curriculum revision process, possible modulations of the staff work and student studies, as well as the internationalization of studies and the mobility of staff and students. The previous research on the Bologna Process conducted in the Finnish context (Hoffman et al., 2008; Välimaa et al., 2006) defined the framework and methodology for this study. This study was based on a qualitative approach and the interview data were analyzed by qualitative content analysis. The authors read the interview data several times looking for expressions of internationalization (Creswell, 2007; Patton, 2002). From the interview data the following main themes emerged concerning the internationalization of Italian academic life: the internationalization of teaching and studies, student and staff mobility, and the internationalization of academic work and career. Results Internationalization of Teaching and Studies According to the interviewees, Italian university teaching is in transition. The competitiveness of the university degrees has created a new situation. Universities are expected

306 H. AITTOLA ET AL. to produce highly qualified experts for the labour market, to support student career planning, to provide qualifications needed for the work place and to increase international activity in university studies. From the professors point of view, the construction of courses has changed somewhat due to the reforms originating from the Bologna Process. The quality of teaching itself equals that of the past, but today teachers use new teaching modes. The trend seemed to be that updated courses and attractive curricula are used as tools in competing for good students. This change seemed to confuse the teaching staff: they are not accustomed to competition for students at the university level. Also doubts about the consequences of competition were expressed. In addition to national goals to decrease the number of drop-outs, the Bologna Process has made the comparability of studies possible: One of the national goals was to balance the university system, to avoid dropouts, and to offer students the possibility of getting a degree which is internationally comparable. So it s one of the most important goals to give Italian students the possibility to have a first degree so that they can exit university at a relatively young age with their first degree which is comparable to the level of the other European countries. (Interviewee 1) Teachers feel that the written curricula bring certain advantages in the new degree system. The curricula specify the two degrees so that it is easy to derive the Diploma Supplements from them. There have been some difficulties in defining the contents and the workload of courses and also assessing credits for previous studies. The procedure of certification is now easier because the Diploma Supplement explains the quality and contents of studies. The workload of students is now assessed through credit points, which is a complicated matter when adjusting the amount of work with the correct sizing. The implementation of the credit system has also evoked confusion among academics: the introduction of credits led to a lot of discussions between people evaluating their colleagues in terms of the credit attributed to their courses (Interviewee 4). A positive consequence of harmonizing the tuition and the credit point system is the possibility for students to change their field of studies more easily than before and the possibility to approve credits from previous studies as part of the degree. Though the number of students is diminishing in programmes leading to a Master s degree, the actual duration of these studies is now closer to their planned duration. Some academics feel uneasy when confronting the disappearance of old traditions, and having to respond to the demands of internationalization and teaching in English. Obviously there is still pressure for institutions to revise and modernize their teaching. The courses have been formulated afresh to be interactive and student-centred. Internationalization has influenced the teachers work: apart from teaching, they have to improve their knowledge of languages and prepare their courses in English. Furthermore, student exchange programmes mean extra work for the teaching staff in crediting studies pursued abroad. Clearly, the Bologna Process affects the whole system: the structure of teaching staff, the university services needed, the educational supply and models of teaching as well as 1 In this article, extracts from interview transcripts are denoted with an identifying number in each case.

THE BOLOGNA PROCESS AND INTERNATIONALIZATION 307 related quality assurances and research. It also generates demands for academic staff to become more international: Now there is a strong pressure to publish at an international level and there are other new obligations and these are also influenced by the Bologna Process meaning that they have an international style, and international faculty. And also, we have started international cooperation with other countries. We are starting these activities and the idea is to have a joint degree in which the student moves; for the first year they stay in this university and for the second one they are going abroad (to a certain country) and come back for the third year I think this is good it changes the staff, changes the services we provide, our educational service and maybe also, I hope, changes the quality of the final result we ll have to wait and see I m quite sure that we will have change in Italy it is not so easy to change things. (Interviewee 2) The traditional idea of free and autonomous university teaching jointly with free-ofcharge studying is challenged by the reforms. The academics have to rethink university teaching and studies from a new perspective. It has been difficult, however, to give up the idea of the Bildung university among the interviewees. One of the professors claimed that: my discipline cannot be measured in credits, in units, cannot be quantified (Interviewee 4). Internationalization by Mobility One of the explicit objectives of the Bologna Declaration was to remove obstacles to student mobility. Accordingly, many of the interviewees thought that one of the most important national goals of the Bologna Process is to increase student and staff mobility. In this article student mobility was examined as a factor influencing the work of academics. The perceptions of Italian academics about international mobility and process are discussed under three themes: student mobility, staff mobility and the internationalization of academic work and careers. The themes are discussed separately realizing, however, their inherent overlap. According to the interviewees, student mobility in Italian universities is mostly connected to the Erasmus programme. Student exchange is not a new phenomenon in Italian higher education; a well-established system was already in place before the Bologna Process. There seems to be a diversity of views on student mobility in different disciplines and departments. Although the Bologna Process emphasizes student mobility, the implementation process has led to surprising results in some universities. It has actually decreased the number of students going abroad. The reason for this reduction being that it is now more difficult than earlier to fit in the exchange period with the new strictly structured study programme. In fact the Bologna Process was so busy changing the programme to three plus two years that we have less people in Erasmus programme, not more (Interviewee 4). Yet, there are institutions where the number of students going abroad has increased because of the new and easier credit transfer system for the studies pursued at the exchange university. How well the courses at the home institution match with the courses abroad depends also on the discipline, and in some disciplines many courses are similar. In all, academics are content to see the number of exchange students grow.

308 H. AITTOLA ET AL. The interviewees listed certain benefits of student mobility but also some problems in the system were noticed. Student mobility increases understanding and tolerance toward different cultures, which is desirable for responsible future citizens. Moreover, studies abroad prepare students for the global labour market. Studying abroad is expensive, and this raises staff concerns about the equality of students possibilities. The wealth of the parents often becomes a deciding factor in whether students are able to participate in an exchange programme or not: The funds for these programmes are very limited. Sometimes I think that this is introducing an element of disparity, because only wealthy families can afford to send their children abroad (Interviewee 8). The interviewees also described PhD students international mobility. Mobility at this level seemed to be lively and considered important; in some departments doctoral students spend about six months at a foreign university. After the exchange period the students can share their experiences and knowledge with other PhD students at home. Foreign language is not a problem in PhD studies and it does not hinder two-way mobility; at this level course materials are usually in English. The opinions of the interviewed academics gave a quite varied and contradictory picture as regards the internationalization of their own institution or unit, including staff mobility. When academics considered their units from a research not teaching point of view, they found they would be internationalized anyway, independently from the Bologna Process, and with no recent changes. At the university level, professors and researchers always say that research is international, so, we have conferences, we read in English, we are already internationalized (Interviewee 10). However, despite the research exchange between universities and participation in various programmes, some teachers and professors find that their institution except for the Erasmus programme is not actually an international university. In the context of the Bologna Process, mobility has been discussed rather as a possibility, than an actual practice in the academic staff s work and career. The intention to increase mobility at higher education institutions can be seen as an element of change and departure from the old university tradition. One barrier to staff mobility is an economic one: sending out and taking in professors for teaching periods requires extra funding. In addition, as with student mobility, there seems to be no adequate national policy to attract foreign staff, including measures to diminish the language barrier: Of course this would really need a positive direct policy action to do this because it doesn t happen on its own. You have to invest money and invest efforts in attracting people who don t come only because of the Vatican Museums (Interviewee 3). The mobility of university staff also implies inviting more visiting foreign professors and hosting them. This incoming mobility seemed to function well in some departments: We have a lot of visiting professors, I used to have in my unit continuously people coming for shorter or longer periods and doing their research and teaching at the PhD level as a visiting professor (Interviewee 2). Though short-term visits are quite common, the interviewees found that long-term employment of foreign scholars or professors is relatively rare. Internationalization of Academic Work and Career In academia the internationalization of work is seen as a natural aspect of present-day working environments. As mentioned in the previous section, many respondents saw

THE BOLOGNA PROCESS AND INTERNATIONALIZATION 309 that in the realm of research they were already internationalized. Nonetheless, the academics also talked about new demands they confronted in this novel situation. Doctoral students, as junior colleagues, can feel the same pressure in their studies. They have to sell their work (Interviewee 9), that is, to write articles and have them published in international publications. Doctoral studies pursued abroad are also highly appreciated in the research environment. This new state of affairs challenges the typically linear model of Italian academic careers, which means staying in the same university from basic studies up to the research career. According to the interviewees, working abroad is also appreciated in certain lines of business in the private sector. Though the interviewees felt that there are expectations towards more student-centred didactics and student counselling in Italian higher education, professors were said to be more concerned about their own career and research: of course there are exceptions, but professors are more concerned about their career and less on didactics, teaching and student care (Interviewee 10). For the traditional academics the new system may become problematic. Professors might have difficulties in adapting to the new degree system and in getting used to teaching at different degree levels at the university. For older professors teaching in English is difficult because they do not necessarily have experience in international contexts. At the same time, there are academics who, in their hopes for the future steps of the Bologna Process, are looking forward to working together with colleagues with different educational experiences. Some respondents are planning to start networks or a joint degree with a foreign institution, including exchanging staff and services, so as to succeed institutionally. Though there is a movement towards collaborating and networking for the benefit of students we can do more, we can offer students more together (Interviewee 6) there is also a competitive drive with respect to academic career development: academics believe they should prioritize research over international teaching activities. According to the respondents, there is a strong trend for hiring visiting professors from other countries. Universities want to attract internationally competitive professors, including Italian professors who have studied and taught abroad gaining new perspectives and good language skills for institutional benefit. Although mobility is considered mostly a positive phenomenon among academic staff, it does not always appear to be an advantage from the perspective of academic employment. On one hand, there is a risk of brain drain if academics studying abroad decide to stay there. On the other hand, mobility can even hinder the academic career if the returning academic finds his or her old position occupied by someone else. Conclusions In this study the connections between the Bologna Process and different aspects of internationalization in academic life were examined in the Italian context. The main interest focused on how academics perceive the different modes and effects of internationalization in the academic world. In Italian higher education, as described by university staff, the Bologna Process seems to have had both direct and indirect consequences for internationalization. The university teachers interviewed perceived that teaching at Italian universities is in transition. The new credit system as defined in the Bologna Process specifies the curricular

310 H. AITTOLA ET AL. structure and makes the definition of student workload easier. The written curricula and ECTS points make comparability of studies possible. Furthermore, Italian academics have experienced the demand to develop their teaching in a more interactive and student-centred direction, which they considered consistent with the European style. However, previous prevailing forms of teaching are still traditional in Italian higher education (Capano, 2008). The interviewees felt that the Bologna Process enables increased student exchange due to better harmonization and comparability of higher education in Europe. The perceptions of the Italian academics were consistent with the findings of an international study on the implementation phase of the Bologna and Lisbon reforms (The Gallup Organization, 2007). Also in that study most respondents agreed with the statement that student mobility should be an obligatory element of the curriculum for doctoral candidates and for students in general. On the other hand, the academics interviewed in the present study stated that owing to the Erasmus programme student mobility already functioned well before the implementation of the Bologna Process. For Italian universities the internationalization procedure has meant, on the one hand, a reorganization of study programmes according to the new degree structure and, on the other hand, finding partners for teaching cooperation and research collaboration. Institutions are evolving into more international learning environments by taking in students from other countries and providing opportunities for visiting lecturers. At the same time, outgoing staff mobility and participation in international projects are also gaining momentum. The Bologna Process has also had some unintended consequences from the Italian academics point of view. Although the comparability of studies has made student exchange easier in general, there were some disciplines for which the new strictly structured study programmes actually decreased student mobility. Similarly, Rivza and Teichler (2007) note that the Bachelor s Master s degree structure, and various curricular strategies associated with it, can discourage temporary student mobility. Unlike their teaching practice, the Italian academics considered that their research work was already internationalized. The Bologna Process seemed, however, to entail additional pressures for the work and careers of academics. They saw that the changes actually strengthened the contradiction between teaching and research. The multifaceted demands to promote their own career by increasing international publishing and internationalizing teaching at the same time could cause insoluble dilemmas in academic work. The harmonization aspects of the Bologna Process challenge the traditional values of academic autonomy and freedom (Barkholt, 2005; Minelli et al., 2008). The changes brought resistance especially among those academics who are more traditionally oriented to academic life and have less experience in international contexts. Furthermore, international activities have not necessarily been emphasized in Italian higher education for cultural and historical reasons (Capano, 2008; Heinze and Knill, 2008). Although the Bologna Process is a top-down process, the emphasis seemed to be on student and staff development, which is one of the institutional-level rationales of internationalization (Knight, 2004). In this study academics stated a need for a policy for attracting more foreign students, since there is an imbalance between incoming and outgoing students in Italy. A policy to attract foreign staff was also hoped for regarding the future (see also Hoffman, 2007). The activities highlighted by the interviewees had mainly to do with internationalization as a means to enhance international and intercultural understanding and skills. In fact, the overall meaning of the internationalization scheme

THE BOLOGNA PROCESS AND INTERNATIONALIZATION 311 has been questioned. According to Rivza and Teichler (2007), there is evidence that student mobility is increasingly losing its exclusivity in enhancing international competencies. Even the term internationalization at home (Wachter, 2003) has been developed to describe the aspects of internationalization on a home campus, for example, with reference to the intercultural and international dimension in the teaching/learning process, and the relationships with local cultural and ethnic groups. The Italian academic interviewees talked about the pressure they felt towards the internationalization of their work. How much of it comes from the discussion connected to the Bologna Process is difficult to ascertain. Nevertheless, the Bologna Process can be seen as a possibility to rethink the meaning of internationalization in higher education institutions, even though it has not been considered the only promoter of such trends for studies and academic work. In a Finnish study (Välimaa et al., 2006; Hoffman et al., 2008) where university staff of different basic units were interviewed about the Bologna Process, many of them said that they would have initiated the same changes even without the reform. However, the Bologna Process provides an outsider s perspective and makes academic staff take the processes of change more seriously (Hoffman et al., 2008, p. 232; Välimaa et al., 2006, p. 58). While universities are aware of the requirements set out in the Bologna Process, their international activities still seem to be based mainly on personal interests and contacts. It was admitted, however, that internationalization helps the institution to manifest itself as a modern education provider and it makes the institution more attractive to staff and students. References The Education System in Italy: 2006 2007, Eurybase: The Information Database on Education Systems in Europe. Retrieved on 12 November 2009, from <http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/ resources/eurydice/eurybase/pdf/o_integral/it_en.pdf>, 2007. AGASISTI, T. and DAL BIANCO, A. Reforming the University Sector: Effects on Teaching Efficiency Evidence from Italy. Retrieved on 10 December 2008, from <http://ssrn.com/ abstract=942733>, 2008. BARKHOLT, K. The Bologna Process and Integration Theory: Convergence and Autonomy, Higher Education in Europe 30 1 (2005): 23 29. CAPANO, G. Looking for Serendipity: The Problematical Reform of Government within Italy s Universities, Higher Education 55 4 (2008): 481 504. CRESWELL, J.W. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches (2nd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2007. DELHAXHE, A., DESURMONT, A. SABADIE, J.A., HUART, T. and STEINBURGER, M. Key Data on Higher Education in Europe. Retrieved on 12 November 2009, from <http://eacea.ec.europa. eu/resources/eurydice/pdf/o_integral/088en.pdf>, 2009. EUROPEAN COMISSION. Focus on the Structure of Higher Education in Europe: National Trends in the Bologna Process, European Commission Directorate-General for Education and Culture. Retrieved on 21 May 2008, from <http://www.eurydice.org/ressources/eurydice/pdf/ 086FR/086FR_004_C01.pdf>, 2007 GARAM, I. International Teacher Mobility. Benefits and Impact in Comprehensive and Upper Secondary Schools, Vocational Education and Training, and Higher Education. English Summary, Centre for International Mobility CIMO. Retrieved on 10 December 2008, from <http://www.cimo.fi/dman/document.phx/ public/julkaisut+ja+tilastot/occasional/ summary_1_2007.pdf>, 2007.

312 H. AITTOLA ET AL. HEINZE, T. and KNILL, C. Analysing the Differential Impact of the Bologna Process: Theoretical Considerations on National Conditions for International Policy Convergence, Higher Education 56 4 (2008): 493 510. HOFFMAN, D. The Career Potential of Migrant Scholars in Finnish Higher Education: Emerging Perspectives and Dynamics. University of Jyväskylä. Jyväskylä Studies in Education, Psychology and Social Research 318, 2007. HOFFMAN, D., VÄLIMAA, J. and HUUSKO, M. The Bologna Process in Academic Basic Units: Finnish Universities and Competitive Horizons, in J. Välimaa and O.-H. Ylijoki, eds. Cultural Perspectives on Higher Education. Dordrecht: Springer, 2008, pp. 227 243. KEHM, B. M. and TEICHLER, U. Research on Internationalisation in Higher Education, Journal of Studies in International Education 113 4 (2007): 260 273. KNIGHT, J. Internationalization Remodeled: Definition, Approaches, and Rationales, Journal of Studies in International Education 8 1 (2004): 5 31. LONDON COMMUNIQUÉ. Towards the European Higher Education Area: Responding to Challenges in a Globalised World. Retrieved on 12 November 2009, from <http://sefi.be/wpcontent/uploads/london%20communiqu%c3%a9%2018may071.pdf>, 18 May, 2007. MINELLI, E., REBORA, G. and TURRI, M. How Can Evaluation Fail? The Case of Italian Universities, Quality in Higher Education 14 2 (2008): 157 173. PATTON, M. Q. Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods (3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002. RIVZA, B. and TEICHLER, U. The Changing Role of Student Mobility, Higher Education Policy 20 4 (2007): 457 475. THE GALLUP ORGANIZATION. Perceptions of Higher Education Reforms. Survey among Teaching Professionals in Higher Education Institutions, in the 27 Member States, and Croatia, Iceland, Norway and Turkey, Flash Eurobarometer Series 198. Retrieved on 10 December 2008, from <http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash/fl198_en.pdf>, 2007. URSIN, J., HUUSKO, M., AITTOLA, H., KIVINIEMI, U. and MUHONEN, R. Evaluation and Quality Assurance in Finnish and Italian Universities in the Bologna Process, Quality in Higher Education 14 2 (2008): 109 120. VÄLIMAA, J., HOFFMAN, D. and HUUSKO, M. The Bologna Process in Finland. Perspectives from Basic Units, in V. TOMUSK, ed. Higher Education Dynamics. Vol. 12. Creating the European Area of Higher Education. Voices from the Periphery. Dordrecht: Springer, 2006, pp. 43 68. WACHTER, B. An Introduction: Internationalization at Home in Context, Journal of Studies in International Education 7 1 (2003): 5 11.

Copyright of Higher Education in Europe is the property of Routledge and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.