SUB Gfittingen 213 789 981 2001 B 865 Practical Research Planning and Design Paul D. Leedy The American University, Emeritus Jeanne Ellis Ormrod University of New Hampshire Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio
)NTENTi Introduction xvii Chapter 1 Wlhiaft Ds Chapter 2 What Research Is Not 3 What Research Is 4 Discovering the Discipline of Research 9 Browsing the Periodicals Section of the Library 10 Computer Prompt: Finding Journals on the Internet 10 Practical Application: Evaluating the Research of Others 11 Checklist: Reflective questions to consider when evaluating research 11 Guidelines: Benefiting from Others' Research 12 For Further Reading 13 IF General Tools of Research 14 The Library and Its Resources as a Tool of Research 15 The Library of the Quiet Past 15 The Library of the Stormy Present 16 How to Access Knowledge Quickly and Efficiently 16 Computer Prompt: The Computer and Its Software as a Tool of Research 19 Taking Advantage of the Internet 19 Accessing the Internet 22 Learning More About the Internet 22 Practical Application: Using the Internet to Facilitate Communication 22 Practical Application: Using E-Mail 23 Guidelines: Getting Started on E-Mail 23 Measurement as a Tool of Research 24 Measuring Insubstantial Phenomena: An Example 24 Interpretation of the Data 21 Four Scales of Measurement 28 Validity and Reliability of Measurement 31
X D CONTENTS Statistics as a Tool of Research 32 The Lure of Statistics 32 Primary Functions of Statistics 33 The Human Mind as a Tool of Research 33 Deductive Logic 34 Inductive Reasoning 35 The Scientific Method 36 Critical Thinking 36 Facility with Language as a Tool of Research 37 The Value of Knowing Two or More Languages 38 The Importance of Writing 38 Practical Application: Communicating Effectively Through Writing 39 Guidelines: Writing to Communicate 39 Computer Prompt: Using a Word Processor 41 Practical Application: Identifying Important Tools in Your Discipline 42 Checklist: Interviewing an Expert Researcher 43 Reflections on Significant Research 43 For Further Reading 44 Chapter 3 Finding Research Projects 49 Practical Application: Identifying and Describing the Research Problem 51 Guidelines: Finding a Legitimate Problem 51 Guidelines: Stating the Research Problem 51 Checklist: Stating the research problem 56 Dividing the Research Problem into Subproblems 56 Subproblems Versus Pseudosubproblems 5 7 Characteristics of Subproblems 51 Identifying Subproblems 58 Computer Prompt: Using Brainstorming Software 59 Every Problem Needs Further Delineation 60 Stating the Hypotheses andlor Research Questions 60 Delimiting the Research 61 Defining the Terms 61 Stating the Assumptions 62 Importance of the Study 63 Ordering the Topics in a Research Proposal 63 A Sample Research Proposal 63 Dissertation Analysis 1 64 Practical Application: Writing and Evaluating a Proposal 66 Checklist: Evaluating your research plan 66
CONTENTS xl Practical Application: Reappraising a Proposed Research Problem 61 Guidelines: Fine-Tuning Your Research Problem 68 For Further Reading 68 Chapter 4 Understanding the Role of the Review 70 Beginning Your Search for Related Literature 71 The Library's Book Collection 11 Computer Prompt: Accessing a Library Catalog from Home 71 Indexes, Abstracts, and Other General References 11 Computer Prompt: Using CD-ROM Technology 73 Online Searches 74 Additional Resources for Your Literature Review 74 Government Publications 14 The World Wide Web 15 Computer Prompt: Searching the Web 75 Using the Citations and References Lists of Those Who Have Gone Before 16 Practical Application: Conducting a Literature Search 76 Guidelines: Using Your Library Time Efficiently 78 Organizing the Information You Have Collected 80 Computer Prompt: Creating Computer Databases 81 Knowing When to Quit 81 Practical Application: Beginning Your Review of the Related Literature 84 Evaluating, Organizing, and Synthesizing the Literature 84 Practical Application: Writing the Section on the Related Literature 84 Guidelines: Writing a Clear and Cohesive Review 84 A Sample Research Proposal 86 Dissertation Analysis 2 87 For Further Reading 89 Chapter 5 Planning Your Research 91 The Basic Format of All Research 91 Research Planning Versus Research Methodology 93 General Criteria for a Research Project 94 The Data: Their Nature and Role in Research 94 What Are Data? 94 Data Are Transient and Ever-Changing 95 Primary Data Versus Secondary Data 95 Criteria for the Admissibility of Data 91 Identifying Appropriate Measurement Instruments 98 Determining the Validity of Measurement Instruments 98
Xii D CONTENTS Chapter 6 Determining the Reliability of Measurement Instruments 99 Linking Data and Research Methodology 100 Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches 101 Considering the Validity of Your Method 103 Internal Validity 103 External Validity 105 Validity in Qualitative Research 106 Ethical Issues in Research 107 Protection from Harm 101 Informed Consent 101 Right to Privacy 108 Honesty with Professional Colleagues 108 Internal Review Boards 110 Professional Codes of Ethics 111 Planning for Data Collection 111 Practical Application: Choosing a Research Approach 112 Guidelines: Deciding Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach 112 Practical Application: Judging the Feasibility of the Research Project 113 Checklist: Estimation sheet to determine the feasibility of the research project 114 When You Can't Anticipate Everything in Advance: The Value of a Pilot Study 116 Practical Application: Establishing Research Criteria 117 Justifying the Research Methodology 117 Practical Application: Developing a Plan of Attack 118 Computer Prompt: Using Project Management Software and Electronic Planners 118 Keeping an Optimistic and Task-Oriented Outlook 118 For Further Reading 120 Researcher and Architect: Planners in Common 122 Characteristics of a Proposal 123 A Proposal Is a Straightforward Document 124 A Proposal Is Not a Literary Production 124 A Proposal Is Clearly Organized 124 Formatting a Research Proposal 126 Formatting Headings and Subheadings 121 Practical Application: Writing Your Proposal 128 Guidelines: Writing the First Draft 128 Guidelines: Revising Your Proposal 129 Computer Prompt: Using Word Processing to Write Your Proposal 130 The Importance of Interpreting the Data 133 Practical Application: Planning Your Interpretation of the Data 133 Guidelines: Describing Your Treatment of the Data 133 Using a Summary Graphic 135 Common Weaknesses in Research Proposals 135
CONTENTS Xiii Practical Application: Strengthening Your Proposal 137 Checklist: Features detracting from proposal effectiveness 137 Final Thoughts About Proposal Writing 138 A Sample Research Proposal 139 Dissertation Analysis 3 139 For Further Reading 142 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 The Nature of the Research Problem and Planning in Qualitative Research 148 When to Choose a Qualitative Approach 148 Qualitative Research Designs 149 Case Study 149 Ethnography 151 Phenomenological Study 153 Grounded Theory Study 154 Content Analysis 155 Collecting Data in Qualitative Research 158 Observations 158 Interviews 159 Practical Application: Conducting Interviews in a Qualitative Study 159 Guidelines: Conducting a Productive Interview 159 Computer Prompt: Using Technology to Facilitate Data Collection and Transcription 160 Organizing and Analyzing the Data from Qualitative Studies 160 Computer Prompt: Using Computer Databases to Facilitate Data Organization and Interpretation 162 Practical Application: Planning a Qualitative Study 162 Checklist: Planning a qualitative study 163 Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative Research 164 Practical Application: Evaluating a Qualitative Study 165 Checklist: Evaluating qualitative research studies 165 A Sample Dissertation 166 Dissertation Analysis 4 166 For Further Reading 170 Historical Research: The Meaning of Events 172 Data Sources in Historical Research 173 Computer Prompt: Electronic Databases and Historical Data 173
XiV M CONTENTS Evaluating and Interpreting Historical Data 174 External Evidence 114 Internal Evidence 114 Considering Historical Time and Historical Space 175 Historical Time 116 Historical Space 118 Practical Application: Handling Historical Data Systematically 179 A Paper-Pencil Approach: Making Note Cards and Bibliography Cards 180 Computer Prompt: A Computerized Approach to Collecting and Organizing Your Data 181 Psychological or Conceptual Historical Research 181 The Fascination of Searching for Roots 182 Practical Application: Historical Research Writing 182 Checklist: Comparing two records of a significant event in history 182 Guidelines: Writing the Historical Research Report 183 A Sample Dissertation 184 Dissertation Analysis 5 184 For Further Reading 187 Chapter 9 Descriptive Research Designs 191 Correlational Research 191 Developmental Designs 194 Observation Studies 195 Survey Research 196 Using Checklists and Rating Scales 197 Practical Application: Planning and Conducting Interviews 199 Guidelines: Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study 200 An Example in International Relations 200 Practical Application: Constructing and Administering a Questionnaire 202 Guidelines: Constructing a Questionnaire 202 Guidelines: Maximizing Your Return Rate for a Mailed Questionnaire 204 Computer Prompt: Using Databases, Word Processing, and Mail Merge to Facilitate Questionnaire Mailing 209 Computer Prompt: Using Scanners to Facilitate Questionnaire Data 210 Choosing a Sample in a Descriptive Study 210 Sampling Designs 211 Sampling in Survey Research 220 Identifying a Sufficient Sample Size 222 Bias in Research Sampling 222 Practical Application: Population Analysis for a Descriptive Survey 224
CONTENTS XV Checklist: Analyzing a population 224 Computer Prompt: Computerizing Data Collection in Descriptive Research 225 Interpreting Data in Descriptive Research 226 Some Final Suggestions 227 For Further Reading 227 Chapter 10 The Importance of Control 230 Independent and Dependent Variables 233 Examples of Experimental Research Designs 234 Pre-Experimental Designs 234 True Experimental Designs 23 6 Quasi-Experimental Designs 231 Causal-Comparative Designs 239 Factorial Designs 242 Testing Your Hypotheses, and Beyond 245 Practical Application: Identifying a Research Design 245 A Sample Dissertation 246 Dissertation Analysis 6 247 For Further Reading 250 22S) Chapter 71 Exploring the Data 252 Teetaispes fiw AmiaiysSirag (OnaamftOttaftiv afia 252 Drawing Conclusions from the Data 255 Computer Prompt: Spreadsheets and the Description and Analysis of Data 255 The Role of Statistics in Making Data More Meaningful 257 Functions of Statistics 259 Statistics as Estimates of Population Parameters 260 Considering the Nature of the Data 260 Parametric versus Nonparametric Statistics 263 Descriptive Statistics 264 Points of Central Tendency 264 Measures of Variation: Dispersion or Deviation 268 Measures of Relationship: Correlation 211 Inferential Statistics 272 Estimation 213 Hypothesis Testing 215 Practical Application: Analyzing Data in a Quantitative Study 278 Checklist: Questions to consider when choosing a statistical procedure 278 Computer Prompt: Using Statistical Software Packages 279 For Further Reading 280
XVi CONTENTS Chapter 12 Teetaosai SaiiDss SftyD, F Datc:, ame!! If Getting Started 285 Computer Prompt: "Surfing" the Internet for Writing Assistance 286 Practical Application: Critiquing a Research Report 287 Checklist: Criteria for critiquing a research report 287 Planning a Research Report 288 Description of the Research Problem 289 Description of the Method 289 Presentation of the Data 290 Interpretation of the Data 290 Concluding the Report 291 A Graphic Organizer for the Research Report 292 Front Matter and End Matter 293 Preliminary Pages 293 Citations and Reference Lists 294 Endnotes and Footnotes 296 Appendix Content 291 Computer Prompt: Style Manual Assistance on the Internet 297 Organizing the Research Report 297 Preparing the Report 299 Style of Prose 300 Principles of Writing 300 Practical Application: Developing a Writing Schedule 301 Guidelines: Developing a Workable Schedule 302 Beyond the Unpublished Research Report: Presenting and Publishing 303 Paper Presentations 303 Journal Articles 303 Sharing Authorship 304 A Closing Thought 304 For Further Reading 305 ^