Studies in Higher Education ISSN: 0307-5079 (Print) 1470-174X (Online) Journal homepage: http://srhe.tandfonline.com/loi/cshe20 The importance of networks in the transnational mobility of higher education students: attraction and satisfaction of foreign mobility students at a public university Eugénia Pedro & Mário Franco To cite this article: Eugénia Pedro & Mário Franco (2016) The importance of networks in the transnational mobility of higher education students: attraction and satisfaction of foreign mobility students at a public university, Studies in Higher Education, 41:9, 1627-1655, DOI: 10.1080/03075079.2014.999321 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.999321 Published online: 25 Feb 2015. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 539 View Crossmark data Citing articles: 2 View citing articles Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://srhe.tandfonline.com/action/journalinformation?journalcode=cshe20 Download by: [Society for Research into Higher Education SRHE] Date: 22 November 2017, At: 17:36
Studies in Higher Education, 2016 Vol. 41, No. 9, 1627 1655, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.999321 The importance of networks in the transnational mobility of higher education students: attraction and satisfaction of foreign mobility students at a public university Eugénia Pedro a and Mário Franco b * a Department of Management and Economics, University of Beira Interior, Estrada do Sineiro, Covilhã 6200-209, Portugal; b Management and Economics Department, NECE Research Center in Business Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Estrada do Sineiro, Covilhã 6200-209, Portugal Advancing the understanding of academic mobility becomes essential since this phenomenon is gaining prominence in the context of the internationalization of European higher education, with repercussions in economic terms for the host institution itself and its surrounding region. From a network theory perspective, this study intends to understand what motivates students in transnational mobility (TM) to seek certain Institutions of Higher Education rather than others. In keeping with the state-of-the-art, the aim is also to obtain indications that associate, or not, those students previous contact with social networks. Through research of a quantitative, exploratory nature, this study presents results referring to 81 TM students at a Portuguese state university, University of Beira Interior. From these results, it can be inferred that the public and private reasons that attract and perpetuate the TM of higher education students are associated with the adoption of social networks. Some implications for theory and practice are also presented. Keywords: higher education; transnational mobility; networks; satisfaction 1. Introduction While the USA experienced rapid geographical integration in the second half of the twentieth century (Hoxby 2002), the European higher education market remained practically segmented in national or regional markets (Musselin 2004). Bouwel and Veugelers (2013) state that European higher education institutions (HEIs) do not have sufficient incentives to develop their strengths since they operate in segmented local markets, and as a result, compared to their US counterparts, and soon perhaps to those in China, they run the risk of lagging behind in the increased international competition for talented academics and students. In the opinion of these authors, correcting that fragmentation has been a priority on the European political agenda, with the transnational mobility (TM) of students and researchers becoming a major policy. The Bologna Process, whose objective was to stimulate intra and extra-community mobility, aiming to raise the average quality of HEIs through stronger competition in a larger and more unified market, currently covers 47 European countries (Bouwel and *Corresponding author. Email: mfranco@ubi.pt 2015 Society for Research into Higher Education
1628 E. Pedro and M. Franco Veugelers 2013). In this way, facilitating the mobility of higher education students, academics and non-teaching staff, it seeks to improve the comparability and compatibility of the various higher education systems in Europe, although this beneficial effect of increased student mobility will only occur if guided effectively and by quality standards (Bouwel and Veugelers 2013). In the last decade, HEIs have been transformed into corporate networks oriented towards the consumer, challenging values of public interest (Rutherford 2005). Students are now customers investing in their own education (Boden and Nedeva 2010) and HEIs now compete in global markets (Deakin 2014). The development of networks through programmes such as ERASMUS plays an important socio-economic role in European higher education (Rodríguez González, Bustillo Mesanza, and Mariel 2011). The academic mobility of students, lecturers and researchers forms one of the elements of universities internationalization processes (Madarro 2011), with relevant economic and academic implications (Li and Bray 2007). Since 1987, there have been relevant mobility flows of ERASMUS students, something which has also been stimulated in recent years by opening up the programme to Eastern countries (Rodríguez González, Bustillo Mesanza, and Mariel 2011). The internationalization of higher education has been the subject of some studies, with discussions of the implications of academic mobility in general (e.g. Enders 2004; Teichler 2004a) and as a matter of government policy (e.g. Aupetit 2006; Carrington, Meek, and Wood 2007). Other researchers concentrated on student mobility (e.g. Li and Bray 2007; Kondakci 2011), asking what leads students to choose certain countries rather than others (Kondakci 2011). Dall Alba and Sidhu (2013) state that in the focus of research related to student mobility, five major inter-connected areas can be identified. One examines the individual and contextual reasons moulding the option to participate in mobility programmes (e.g. Doyle et al. 2010; Stroud 2010). Another investigates the motivations, expectations and subsequent experiences of students who participate in mobility programmes (e.g. Edmonds 2010; Hunley 2010). The third concentrates on the perceived outcomes of student mobility programmes (e.g. Sutton and Rubin 2010; Forsey et al. 2012). The fourth aspect of research centres on policy and institutional factors, namely what motivates universities to adopt student mobility programmes as a strategic objective, and governments justifications for promoting such programmes (e.g. Daly and Barker 2010; Daly 2011). Finally, a fifth group of studies adopts a sociological sensitivity and questions socio-economic patterns, gender and ethnic profiles of participating students, demonstrating that mobility programmes are undertaken by a highly selective group of students (Brux and Fry 2009; Salisbury et al. 2009). Some authors (e.g. Cantwell et al. 2009; Park 2009) studied also the reasons leading students to choose a country for study abroad. Knight (2004) and Altbach and Knight (2007) pointed out different types of internationalization logic in HEIs. These structures are useful in conceptualizing why host countries/institutions internationalize their higher education, being fundamental for representation of the question from the perspective of the destination at a macro level. However, these authors say less about why a student chooses a certain country to study abroad. Then Park (2009) analysed the TM dynamics of Korean students with a 2D model. The first D, the driving force factor, represents the domestic values leading Korean students to study abroad. The second D, the directional factor, describes the factor influencing the choice of destination. Although the model gives a perspective from the country of origin, it was fundamental only to document the academic and environmental reasons leading Korean students to certain destinations,
Studies in Higher Education 1629 namely China, the USA, the UK and Australia. Cantwell, Luca, and Lee (2009) analyse the orientations of TM students in Mexico, revealing some of the reasons why students from Europe, North America and Latin America choose Mexico as a receiving country. Massey et al. (1993) state that two different typologies of reasons for student TM should be borne in mind: those that start mobility and those that make it last. Based on network theory and considering its importance in this context, and on the literature on the dynamics of student TM, this study draws up a bi-dimensional framework and examines its usefulness in understanding the reasons leading students from foreign HEIs to choose a given host institution for their mobility. Therefore, the aim of this study is to find out the reasons motivating higher education students TM and to what extent this choice is associated with the adoption of social networks and previously established contacts. This study is justified by the fact that it is a recent subject and so the literature does not contain many empirical studies about the relevance of social networks in HEIs internationalization process and student TM. Therefore, this research can provide indications contributing to deeper studies in the area of higher education internationalization in general and student TM in particular; understanding students reasons for wanting to spend a period of study outside their own country can be particularly important, considering that the vertiginous growth of that mobility corresponds to the most visible aspect of the phenomenon. This article is structured in three parts. The first carries out a review of the literature considered relevant, in order to analyse the state-of-the-art regarding networks and student mobility in HEIs. The second part develops the methodological aspect of the study. The final section presents the results, conclusions and limitations of the study and guidelines for future research. 2. Literature review and hypotheses 2.1. The importance of networks in the context of student TM in HEIs Network theory is part of the group of behavioural theories which, from the point of view of the multinational institution, explores the relationships between the matrix and subsidiaries, relationships between customers and suppliers, and also their impact on the institution and its equivalents (Silva and Lima 2011). The network concept appeared in 1982, in Sweden, with the publication of several books about networks and competitiveness (Mattsson and Johanson 2006). Up to that moment, research into networks was essentially directed towards generating theoretical concepts. But according to Mattsson and Johanson (2006), research into networks can also bring results with practical relevance. Franco, Mainardes, and Martins (2011) state that the topics dealt with most in the domain of inter-organizational networks are relationships, trust, strategic alliances, innovation, internationalization and cooperation. Pohjola (1991) says that there was interest in analysing social networks in the 1980s. This author points out that social networks guide and mould individuals behaviour, and it is possible that they play a significant role in life choices and in the decision to migrate. In addition, the author believes that their support function becomes prominent in situations of change. Adjustment to new situations is seen as being affected by three factors: the material aspect, the moral aspect and formation of new social networks (Caces 1985). So, inter-personal interaction can soften the impact of new life situations through information and practical help (Pohjola 1991).
1630 E. Pedro and M. Franco Developed countries are greatly interested in attracting foreign students for several reasons, one of them being the possibility of the HEI serving as an important channel allowing host countries to spread their cultural, economic and political norms abroad (Brooks and Waters 2010). For example, Spilimbergo (2009) shows that foreign education promotes democracy in students countries of origin, especially when the education was acquired in democratic countries. So given a scenario where HEIs internationalization policies are at a development stage, actions should be directed towards forming networks from students interaction, because the choice of one institution over another can be influenced by its relationship network (Silva and Lima 2011). Through social networks, the institution can gain access to resources beyond its borders, such as goods, services and innovation (Andersson, Forsgren, and Holm 2002). Considering that network research can involve many aspects and a wide range of resources, such as the size of the network, its structure, its interaction processes, its behaviours, its influences and capacities (Coviello 2005), to what extent can it be inferred that from the perspective of HEI internationalization, students relationship networks contribute to their mobility (Silva and Lima 2011)? Social networks are described by Portes (1999) as sets of recurring associations between groups of people connected by emotional, occupational, family and cultural bonds. Instead of studying the independent effects of individual attributes or dual relationships, this author states that a network analysis provides an explanation for social behaviour, based on models of interaction between social actors. For Mercklé (2011), network theory forms a mesosociological third way. This approach intends not only to explain individuals behaviour through the networks they are part of, but also explain network structuring from the analysis of interactions between individuals and their motivations. About HEI internationalization, Batista (2009) refers to networks as a tendency in bilateral agreements, where academic units (departments, schools and institutions) are connected and directed towards multiple purposes, which can be academic, administrative or commercial. Beine et al. (2013) conclude that networks and quality in HEIs are statistically significant determining factors in student mobility. It is important to highlight that the network concept used in this study is from the student s perspective and not from that of the HEI. 2.2. Higher education students TM process: hypothesis development The academic mobility of students, lecturers and researchers is one of the components of HEI internationalization. In today s society of knowledge and technological innovation, opportunities to study abroad are valued more and more, with this being a kind of passport to new professional, social, cultural and above all personal experiences (Alves 2012). So, its contribution to the future is important because it opens doors to new opportunities in the professional sphere and acquisition of new competences (knowledge of other languages, ability to work in different geographical contexts, new inter-personal relations and the spirit of initiative and entrepreneurship), besides gaining a more global perspective (Corbella and Aretio 2010). Mobility activities are developed both independently by those directly concerned and by institutions internationalization strategies, national higher education systems and other stakeholders such as regional organizations (Madarro 2011). Madarro (2011) considers student TM as a possibility for future professionals and researchers to spend a period of study in a foreign HEI, with these studies being
Studies in Higher Education 1631 recognized by their home institutions as an integral part of their academic training. This author also states that this process is considered a favourable element not only for individual training, but also for the benefits derived from transforming careers, institutions academic practices, higher education systems and integration in different territories. In the European context, student mobility has been greatly stimulated by the ERASMUS and SOCRATES programmes financed by the European Union (King and Ruiz-Gelices 2003). The ERASMUS programme, created in June 1987, is by far the largest student exchange programme in Europe, and is still growing. Sigalas (2010) adds that the experience of ERASMUS students abroad brings contact with other European cultures and people and may consequently promote a European identity. Students TM is stimulated by a series of factors that push and attract students (Caruso and De Wit 2013). Li and Bray (2007) mention that students tend to go from less industrialized, that is, less developed, countries to more industrialized ones. Agarwal et al. (2008), for example, point out factors pushing students in this mobility, such as strategic alliances and academic freedom, among others. Those justifications can be of a public (socio-economic, political and environmental) or private nature (Kondakci 2011). Various authors analysing the reasons behind student TM make a distinction between the individual and society dynamics (e.g. Chen 2006; Arambewela and Hall 2008). However, the terminology should not assume that personal and social dynamics are mutually exclusive (Kondakci 2011). Based on Latour s actor-network theory, Metcalfe and Fenwick (2009) conclude that there is a link between individuals and the social world they create and that through constant interaction among members, a social entity becomes an entity beyond individual members. The factors distinguishing the public from the private reflect the tendency of the literature in that they transmit the connection between the individual and the society in which they participate, as these authors conclude. From this perspective, public factors are concentrated on aspects of the life of host countries/locations that can push/pull students to choose a given country for foreign study; and private factors belong to the student s personal choices, that is, taste, lifestyle, tendencies (Chen 2006) and their personal characteristics such as academic capacity, gender, age, motivation and aspirations (Li and Bray 2007). Private factors are more obvious when students are faced with alternative destinations, presenting equal academic, social and economic opportunities and/or cases, when students do not have much information about the destination. In these cases, students tend to trust their individual choices, interests, concerns and prerogatives in reaching the final decision (Kondakci 2011). Different authors presented different frameworks to analyse students justifications for choosing a host country to study in (e.g. Altbach and Knight 2007; Cantwell, Luca, and Lee 2009; Park 2009). Massey et al. (1993) make a distinction between initiation theories and continuation theories since the conditions that initiate TM may be quite different from those that maintain it over time and space. According to Kondakci (2011), this study incorporates this distinction in the scope of higher education students TM, focusing not only on why students initiate it, but also on how this plan to study abroad in a given country is sustained. 2.2.1. Public reasons before departure that influence students TM Massey et al. (1993) believe that international migration theories propose that mass migration of people is activated, formed and sustained by public logic. In the view
1632 E. Pedro and M. Franco of these authors, the negative evolution of a given country, for example demographic growth, low standard of living, lack of economic opportunities, and economic recession are disturbances that push individuals to leave their country of birth, whereas positive evolution in a given host country, where there is a lack of manpower, positive differentiation in earnings, availability of land and capital for business activities, among others, pull people to enter. This belief in a better life increases the probability of transnational migration (Castles and Miller 2008). This idea is consistent with authors who research student movement and who claim that students move to economically developed countries to improve their skills and abilities and ultimately to maximize the economic benefits of their potential (Chen and Barnett 2000). The perspective of a global system is another initial theory of international migration in the typology of Massey et al. (1993). Hereby, global formation of the capitalist market determines cultural, linguistic, administrative, investment, transport and communication relationships between central and peripheral countries with unequal economic and political power. Some researchers have adapted that understanding to explain the relationship between the centre and periphery in higher education (Kondakci 2011). They understand the flow of students from peripheral countries to the centre as a tool to respond to the excessive demand for higher education in the periphery (Altbach 2003), to build higher education competences (Marginson 2006) and to contribute to building the nation proposed by the countries of origin (Knight 2004). Others see the flux of students from the periphery to central countries as limiting innovation at the local/national level, promoting asymmetrical cultural transformations (Marginson 2006), the creation of monopolies of knowledge in which students from the periphery trust (Chen and Barnett 2000), leading to exploitation of peripheral countries (Thomas 2006). All these reasons may be linked to the social networks in which students are involved. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis: H1: The public reasons of TM students before departure are positively associated with adoption of social networks. 2.2.2. Private reasons before departure that mould students TM The private reasons suggest that the choice of destination for foreign study is related to individuals personal characteristics, such as their level of competences, sex, age, motivation and aspirations (Li and Bray 2007). Here, students personal choices suggest that in academic, social, cultural and environmental domains, including interest in the university campus, climate preferences, preferring to live in a metropolitan city, wanting to be close to cultural and leisure attractions and other aspects, are largely moulded by emotions, that is, by personal taste or aversions (Altbach and Knight 2007). Factors such as Students characteristics (Chen 2006), their motivation to study abroad, through an opportunity for self-development, the academic experience abroad, improved understanding of a host country, improved career prospects, liking for travel and a new experience in a different environment (Teichler 2004b); their priorities in social and academic life, such as the perception of safety, lifestyle, racial discrimination, friends and family, climate and culture, curricular unit programmes, facilities and support services, quality teaching, teaching staff and methods, recognition of courses and the image and prestige of the HEI (Arambewela and Hall 2008; Park 2009) mould their decisions and the choice of country for study (Kondakci 2011). For this purpose, we formulate the following hypothesis:
Studies in Higher Education 1633 H2: The private reasons of TM students before departure are positively associated with adoption of social networks. 2.2.3. Public reasons after departure that perpetuate students TM Networks, the appearance of organizations that help migration, the cumulative cause and the creation of a migration system are suggested as theories that perpetuate international migration more generally (Massey et al. 1993). These ideas can also be applied to explain students TM (Kondakci 2011). Following an individual s initial movement, networks are created that help to divulge migration opportunities to other members of the sending country, because such networks diminish the risk and cost of moving. Besides this, transnational migration in general can stimulate the creation of organizations providing travel and regulation services (Massey et al. 1993). Similarly, higher education policies and programmes encourage this type of network, for example, through language classes and international education fairs, which facilitate international mobility at various levels and can be considered as institutionalized tools perpetuating students TM (Knight 2004). Another factor to take into consideration is the friendship networks that can grow and become group and network structures (Grätz et al. 2004). Thus, we suggest the following relationship: H3: The public reasons of TM students after departure are positively associated with adoption of social networks. 2.2.4. Private reasons after departure that perpetuate students TM Some studies concentrate on students experiences after moving to the host country. These experiences and the satisfaction individuals derive from them are generally related to cultural, social, academic and management aspects that can pull or push international students to continue the experience of studying abroad (Kondakci et al. 2008). Factors such as application and enrolment procedures (Altbach 2004), facilities, academic services, including admission, registration, life in student residences, meals (Kher et al. 2003), the perception of discrimination and exclusion in a given society (Lee and Rice 2007), the suitability of curricular units, advance in research, making good friends, cultural adaptation and part-time work (Tamaoka et al. 2003) affect students satisfaction with their experience of studying in the host HEI. This degree of student satisfaction can also be linked to the adoption of social networks, and so we hypothesize the following: H4: The private reasons of TM students after departure are positively associated with adoption of social networks. 2.3. Proposed research model Bearing in mind the arguments explained, the research model presented in Figure 1 was drawn up. 3. Methodology 3.1. Sample In this study, the subject of analysis is the universe of TM students at a Portuguese state university University of Beira Interior (UBI) in connection with the ERASMUS
1634 E. Pedro and M. Franco Figure 1. Research model. Programme, and also the community of students from Brazil attending the second semester of the academic year 2013/2014. The ERASMUS mobility programme continues to be the most popular one at UBI, increasing gradually each year, despite a slight fall in the last two years due to the crisis felt in the whole of Europe (2012). As for the students from Brazil, at this moment UBI has 50 agreements with Brazilian universities aiming, generally, for the exchange of resources and individuals, partnerships in teaching and research, among others, and in recent years there has been a gradual increase in the demand for courses taught in this university from Brazilian students. In the second semester of the academic year 2013/2014, UBI had 127 students coming under the ERASMUS programme and 23 Brazilian students, 1 making a total of 150 students. 3.2. Data collection As the data-collecting instrument, a questionnaire was prepared in English, Spanish and Portuguese, which contained close-ended, structured questions and used a 7-point Likert scale, from 1 = completely disagree to 7 = completely agree, which was previously selected from the literature referenced (e.g. Li and Bray 2007; Kondakci 2011). This type of scale was chosen because the respondent constructs levels of acceptance, according to his experiences and social influences (Brandalise 2005), and also because it was the scale used by Kondakci (2011) in the same type of study. Prior research also
Studies in Higher Education 1635 indicated that ordinal classification of perception was a more realistic task for respondents than use of interval or ratio measures (Geringer 1991). Following Hill and Hill (2000), in order to assess the suitability of the questionnaire, some pre-tests were performed, ensuring that all the questions were understood and accepted in the same way by respondents. These pilot tests were performed with 10 mobility students staying in the Academic Residence of the university studied here. In doing so, pre-tests were carried out with 2 Polish and 2 Romanian students, in English, 3 Spanish students, in Spanish, and 3 Brazilian students, in Portuguese, ensuring that all the questions were understood and accepted in the same way by all respondents, in the three languages. After readjustment, it was finally sent out by email through GISP Internationalization and Employment Office at UBI. Eighty-seven subjects participated in the study. Six questionnaires were eliminated, as they were not correctly completed, with 81 being considered valid. The sample was gathered in April and May 2014. 3.3. Variable selection and characterization From the literature review it was possible to justify the process of variable selection and characterization. Concerning dimensions and sub-dimensions (independent variables), the studies made by Li and Bray (2007) and Kondakci (2011) were taken into consideration, making the alterations considered pertinent for this study. So to understand the impact of public reasons before departure, the questionnaire contained five items, dealing with economic and socio-cultural factors (Kondakci 2011). In relation to private factors prior to departure, eight questions covered academic, economic, socio-cultural and political factors (Li and Bray 2007; Kondakci 2011) as well as family factors (Kondakci 2011). To assess the role of public reasons after departure, students answered five questions on academic, social and family factors (Kondakci 2011). Regarding private reasons after departure, mobility students satisfaction was considered in four categories: 14 items about academic experiences, 7 items about cultural experiences, 9 items related to social experiences, and finally 9 items about experiences with service management (Kondakci 2011). Regarding the dependent variable of social networks, Beine, Noël, and Ragot (2013) state that this is a determining factor in the mobility of higher education students. Since the intention is to determine the cause/effect on the other dimensions, this variable was measured using a binary/dichotomic scale, which is 1, if the choice of the host university was associated with a social network; or 0 if otherwise (see Table 1). The study group was also characterized according to: (i) gender; (ii) age; (iii) course attended; (iv) year and (v) nationality. 3.4. Data analysis The suppositions, namely reliability, were measured using the Cronbach s alpha. All the constructs were found to be within normal parameters as they do not present values under 0.70 (Hair, Ringle, and Sarstedt 2011), these values varying between 0.844 and 0.828 (see Tables 2 5). Descriptive statistics and a logistic regression were also carried out. This estimation process assesses the relative weights and significance of the independent variables in influencing the probability of social network adoption. As our dependent variable is of a dichotomic nature, the logistic regression
Table 1. Constructs and variables. Dimensions Variables Before departure Public reasons 1. There is a positive salary difference 2. There is an opportunity to find a job after getting my degree 3. There is political stability 4. It is a neighbouring country 5. There is a healthy environment Private reasons 6. The quality of academic life is very high 7. There is good weather in Portugal 8. I wanted to learn from/experience a different culture 9. Portuguese food attracts me 10. The Portuguese language attracts me 11. My parents/family live/work in Portugal 12. My grant (scholarship provider) wanted me to study in Portugal 13. I like Portuguese people and Portuguese culture After departure Public reasons 14. I have the opportunity to integrate other networks 15. Portugal is a Scholarship provider 16. This university is recognized internationally 17. I already have my parents or family living in Portugal 18. Access systems to Portuguese education are easy Private reasons: satisfaction Academic experience: 19. My language skills are sufficient to follow lectures, participate in classes and get involved in group work 20. The instructors/professors encourage me to participate in class 21. I often ask questions and make comments in classes 22. I think the teaching content is arranged according to Portuguese students needs 23. I believe education in this university is truly international 24. In general, I am satisfied with my study/education in this university 25. I feel that I am disadvantaged as a foreign student 26. Usually the instructors/professors give out materials (i.e. videos, cases, texts) in Portuguese 27. I think the instructors/professors teach local (Portuguese) cases and give local examples 28. I think the course content reflects an international focus (Continued.) 1636 E. Pedro and M. Franco
Table 1. Dimensions (Continued.) Variables 29. I think my study programme considers the needs of all students (foreign and Portuguese) equally 30. I believe the instructors/professors respect international student diversity in the classroom 31. I believe what I learn here is applicable in every country 32. I observe that the instructors/professors are responsive to my needs as a foreign student Cultural experience: 33. I think Portuguese culture is welcoming to other cultures 34. I think Portuguese culture is tolerant of racial, ethnic, cultural differences 35. Sometimes I feel I am treated differently because of my cultural background 36. In my perception, poor English language skills of all students limit social interaction among students 37. I think Portuguese students reluctance to use English limits social interaction between Portuguese and foreign students 38. I think intercultural social activities are satisfactory 39. I think international student diversity in the campus is satisfactory Social experience: 40. I think Portuguese students are open to interaction with foreign students and to establishing close friendships with foreign students 41. I think Portuguese students show positive attitudes towards foreign students 42. My adaptation process in Portuguese limits my social interaction with Portuguese students 43. My personality characteristics (e.g. shy, introvert) limit my social interaction with Portuguese students 44. I think the wide use of Portuguese language in both the academic and social context limits my social interaction with Portuguese students 45. My limited Portuguese language skills limit my social interaction with Portuguese students 46. I believe I am integrated in social life in Portugal 47. I believe life style differences between Portugal and foreign students limit social interaction 48. I believe the lack of intercultural events on campus (e.g. fairs, concerts) limits social interaction with Portuguese students Experience related to management 49. I think the university accommodation services are poor 50. I think ICT services are limited 51. I think sports facilities on campus are limited (Continued.) Studies in Higher Education 1637
Table 1. Dimensions Social networks (Continued.) Source: Own elaboration. Abbreviation: ICT internet and communication technology. Variables 52. I experience administrative problems in students affairs 53. I think catering (food) facilities on campus are limited 54. I believe university management is open to communication with foreign students 55. I think university management is aware of the unique needs of foreign students 56. University website, magazines and booklets reflect the international character of the university 57. I believe that GISP Internationalization and Employment Office at UBI helps solve students problems 1 = The choice of the host university was associated with a social network; = 0 otherwise If yes, indicate which one (s):facebook; Qzone; Sina Weibo; Google Plus; Twitter; Haboo; Linkedin; Renren; Badoo, Other (please indicate which). 1638 E. Pedro and M. Franco
Studies in Higher Education 1639 Table 2. Category Demographic characteristics. Respondents (η = 81) ƒ % Gender Female 45 55.6 Male 36 44.4 Age 19 21 30 37 22 24 43 53.1 23 30 7 8.6 >30 1 1.2 Areas of study Arts and humanities 24 29.6 Science 3 3.7 Social and human sciences 16 19.8 Engineering 36 44.4 Health sciences 2 2.5 Study cycle First degree 38 46.9 Master and integrated master 36 44.4 Ph.D. 7 8.6 Nationality Spanish 15 18.5 Polish 27 33.3 Romanian 4 4.9 Turkish 13 16.0 Italian 2 2.5 Brazilian 20 24.7 Social networks Yes 31 38.3 No 50 61.7 Type of Social Network Facebook 18 22.2 Facebook and Twitter 5 6.2 Other 8 9.9 appears to be the most appropriate procedure. For this purpose, Software SPSS Statistics (v.21.0; IBM SPSS) was used. 3.5. Results and discussion A study was made based on the 57 variables measuring the four dimensions before and after departure of TM students, and on the dichotomic variable referring to the use of social networks. This section is divided in two parts. The first presents the demographic characteristics of respondents, descriptive statistics and the results of the reliability test. The second shows the results of the exploratory analysis, having performed a logistic regression aiming to respond to the four research hypotheses previously formulated. 3.5.1. Descriptive statistics and reliability test As given in Table 2, 81 responses were obtained. Regarding respondents, 55.6% are women and 44.4% men. Most are young, around 20 years of age, with the majority
Table 3. Mean, SD and Cronbach s alpha of public reasons attracting TM students. Variables Mean SD Cronb. alpha Agree a Desagree b Neither agree nor disagree ƒ % ƒ % ƒ % There is a positive salary difference 4.05 1.350 0.838 26 32.1 22 27.2 33 40.7 There is an opportunity to find a job after getting my degree 3.90 1.578 0.837 19 23.5 25 30.9 37 45.7 There is political stability 4.16 1.240 0.839 28 34.6 20 24.7 33 40.7 It is a neighbouring country 3.46 2.242 0.842 28 34.6 41 50.6 12 14.8 There is a healthy environment 5.07 1.547 0.837 50 61.7 10 12.3 21 25.9 a Agree is the sum of partly agree, largely agree and strongly agree. b Disagree is the sum of partly disagree, largely disagree and strongly disagree. Table 4. Mean, SD and Cronbach s alpha of the private reasons attracting TM students. Variables Mean SD Cronb. alpha ƒ % ƒ % ƒ % The quality of academic life is very high 4.70 1.327 0.837 45 55.6 11 13.6 25 30.9 There is good weather in Portugal 5.30 1.427 0.839 61 75.3 10 12.3 10 12.3 I wanted to learn from/experience a different culture 6.10 1.546 0.835 69 85.2 8 9.9 4 4.9 Portuguese food attracts me 3.84 1.487 0.838 23 28.4 35 43.2 23 28.4 The Portuguese language attracts me 4.86 1.808 0.835 47 58.0 19 23.5 15 18.5 My parents/family live/work in Portugal 1.56 1.466 0.843 8 9.9 71 87.7 2 2.5 My grant (scholarship provider) wanted me to study in Portugal 3.30 2.233 0.836 27 11.1 45 55.6 9 33.3 I like Portuguese people and Portuguese culture 5.60 1.366 0.835 68 84.0 5 6.2 8 9.9 a Agree is the sum of partly agree, largely agree and strongly agree. b Disagree is the sum of partly disagree, largely disagree and strongly disagree. Agree a Disagree b Neither agree nor disagree 1640 E. Pedro and M. Franco
Table 5. Mean, SD and Cronbach s alpha of public reasons perpetuating students TM. Variables Mean SD Cronb. alpha Agree a Disagree b Neither agree nor disagree ƒ % ƒ % ƒ % I have the opportunity to integrate other networks 4.90 1.488 0.833 52 64.2 13 16.0 16 19.8 Portugal is a Scholarship provider 3.59 1.863 0.836 30 37.0 35 43.2 16 19.8 This university is recognized internationally 4.16 1.470 0.834 35 43.2 23 28.4 23 28.4 I already have my parents or family living in Portugal 1.69 1.586 0.844 8 9.9 70 86.4 3 3.70 The access systems to Portuguese education are easy 4.09 1.257 0.834 32 39.5 23 28.4 26 32.1 a Agree is the sum of partly agree, largely agree and strongly agree. b Disagree is the sum of partly disagree, largely disagree and strongly disagree. Studies in Higher Education 1641
1642 E. Pedro and M. Franco coming from Poland (33.3%), Brazil (24.7%), Spain (18.5%) and Turkey (16%). As for the area of study, Engineering predominates with 44.4%, followed by Arts and Humanities with 39.6%. With lower percentages, we find Social and Human Sciences (19.8%), Science (3.7%) and Health Sciences (2.5%). Regarding study cycle, the sample is balanced between the first and second study cycles (46.9% and 44.4%, respectively). Public reasons before departure: The results given in Table 3 suggest that a healthy environment (5.07) and political stability (4.16) are important when TM students choose a destination country, with consideration also for the factor of positive salary difference (4.05). However, contrary to the case of the study carried out by Kondakci (2011), students give less importance to the opportunity to find employment (3.90). One possible explanation could be the high rate of unemployment registered in Portugal in recent years which has been divulged through channels of communication. As for the fact of being a neighbouring country, only 34.6% agree with this statement. Although all the respondents, except the Brazilians, are from European countries, only Spain can be considered a neighbouring country due to its common borders with Portugal. Considering that in this study, only 18.5% of students are Spanish, the remaining answers could be related to another type of factor, such as linguistic or cultural proximity, which ties in with the opinion of the OECD (2009) when stating that geographical proximity alone is not a useful explanation of student mobility. 3.5.1.1. Private reasons before departure. In this dimension (Table 4), three aspects stand out. First, the desire to learn about/experience a different culture (6.10); second, the fact of liking the Portuguese and their culture (5.60); and finally, Portugal s pleasant climate (5.30). These students give importance to the culture and people surrounding them, which agrees with the conclusion of Alves (2012) when saying that opportunities to study abroad are a type of passport to new social and cultural experiences. Regarding climate, according to Rodríguez González, Bustillo Mesanza, and Mariel (2011), it is appropriate to consider this in the host country as a determinant of its attractiveness. For this author, two types of climate can be distinguished in Europe, Mediterranean or continental/maritime. Accepting the fact that tourism is more important in Mediterranean countries, also according to these authors, this type of country is expected to receive more ERASMUS students than others. Portugal is included in this category of countries, as it is oriented towards tourism and presents an image of a deeply rooted culture characterized by light, sunshine and hospitality. The attraction of the Portuguese language (4.86) and a high quality of academic life (4.70) can also not be ignored, as this result disagrees with Findlay et al. (2006) who consider language as a significant barrier to student mobility. As all the responding students, except the Brazilians, speak languages which are very different from Portuguese, it can be inferred that language is not an obstacle to their TM. As for quality of academic life, Rodríguez González, Bustillo Mesanza, and Mariel (2011) claim that the HEIs most likely to receive TM students with a higher standard of education because students consider this aspect relevant for their careers, corroborating this result. 3.5.1.2. Public reasons after departure. The greatest emphasis is on the indicator referring to the opportunity to integrate other types of network (4.90) Table 5. Indeed, today, networks are fundamental in helping migratory movement and in divulging migration opportunities to other members, reducing the associated cost and risk, as
Studies in Higher Education 1643 stated by Massey et al. (1993). In addition, this author points out that this type of network can stimulate the creation of organizations providing services related to TM (travel, documents, etc.). Therefore, HEIs can also take advantage of this type of policy and programme (e.g. language courses, international education fairs), developing tools to facilitate student mobility both nationally and internationally, tools that can be institutionalized perpetuating student TM (Knight 2004). Having a system of easy access to higher education also seems to please these students (4.09). This factor could be associated with the previous one, taking advantage of the tools made available in this type of network so that TM students can enter Portuguese higher education without great delays. Another factor considered important by the respondents in this research concerns the fact of the university being recognized internationally (4.16). We can emphasize that this internationalization can arise from the advantage provided by networks or through a policy of creating grants, as highlighted by Kondakci (2011). This researcher argues that different countries have established policies of study grants as part of their internationalization strategies, in order to attract international students, trying to retain them until they obtain their degree, which, at the end of the day, contributes to forming and ensuring the quality and quantity of TM students. 3.5.1.3. Private reasons after departure. In this dimension, at the first stage the general averages of each sub-dimension forming it were obtained, having regrouped the indicators corresponding to each of them. From the observation of Table 6, TM students at UBI are seen to be satisfied in all four sub-dimensions, the average being very similar regarding academic experience (4.73), cultural experience (4.76) and social experience (4.72), and a little lower, but still satisfactory, experience with management (4.46). Observing each sub-dimension in more detail, in academic experience, respondents are satisfied with their studies/education at UBI (5.16). They find their linguistic ability is sufficient to follow lecturers, participate in classes and become involved in work-groups (5.53); the subject matter presented at this university can be applied in other institutions (5.38). This statement is also corroborated by 63% of the students asked who believe that lecturers do not teach or give examples only of local (Portuguese) cases. While they think that lecturers respect the international diversity of students in classes (5.19) the majority state that documents handed out are mostly in Portuguese (5.04). Initially, this aspect may affect their learning if they do not have sufficient knowledge of the language to understand what is being taught. However, at a later stage, this may contribute to improving their competence, and may be a bonus in the future, since Portuguese is one of the 10 most widely spoken languages in the world. Concerning the cultural experience, students think the Portuguese are open to and welcome other cultures (5.49) and that inter-cultural activities and international diversity on campus are satisfactory (5.33). In the dimension of social experience, homogeneity is also found in the averages, which vary between 4.91 and 4.17. The only one going higher than these figures is the one related to the question of language. Respondents consider this aspect is not an obstacle to social interaction with Portuguese students (5.02). As already mentioned in this study, this goes against the findings of Findlay et al. (2006) who considered language as a barrier to students TM. In this case, we can conclude that it is not a barrier either before or after TM.
Table 6. Mean, SD and Cronbach s alpha of private reasons perpetuating students TM. Variables Mean SD Cronb. alpha Agree a Disagree b Neither agree nor disagree ƒ % ƒ % ƒ % Academic experience 4.73 0.786 My language skills are sufficient to follow lectures. 5.53 1.415 0.831 62 76.5 9 11.1 10 12.3 participate in classes and get involved in group work The instructors/professors 4.78 1.525 0.832 47 58.0 15 18.5 19 23.5 encourage me to participate in class I often ask questions and make 4.17 1.701 0.837 34 42.0 29 35.8 18 22.2 comments in classes I think the teaching content is arranged 4.44 1.458 0.840 38 46.9 19 23.5 24 29.6 according to Portuguese students needs I believe education in this university 4.64 1.511 0.832 49 60.5 17 21.0 15 18.5 is truly international In general I am satisfied with my 5.16 1.470 0.834 60 74.1 13 16.0 8 9.9 study/education in this university I feel that I am disadvantaged as a 4.62 1.888 0.829 21 25.9 42 51.9 18 22.2 foreign student Usually the instructors/professors 5.04 1.600 0.838 51 63.0 13 16.0 17 21.0 give out materials (i.e. videos, cases, texts) in Portuguese I think the instructors/professors teach 3.53 1.276 0.840 13 16.0 51 63.0 17 21.0 local (Portuguese) cases and give local examples I think the course content reflects an 4.47 1.509 0.828 42 51.9 19 23.5 20 24.7 international focus I think my study programme 4.64 1.511 0.829 46 56.8 21 25.9 14 17.3 considers the needs of all students (foreign and Portuguese) equally I believe the instructors/professors respect international student diversity in the classroom 5.19 1.476 0.831 35 43.2 24 29.6 22 27.2 (Continued.) 1644 E. Pedro and M. Franco
Table 6. (Continued.) Variables Mean SD Cronb. alpha Agree a Disagree b Neither agree nor disagree ƒ % ƒ % ƒ % I believe what I learn here 5.38 1.251 0.831 41 50.6 18 22.2 22 27.2 is applicable in every country I observe that the instructors/professors 4.94 1.345 0.830 56 69.1 12 14.8 13 16.0 are responsive to my needs as a foreign student Cultural experience 4.76 0.742 I think Portuguese culture is 5.49 1.518 0.832 55 67.9 11 13.6 15 18.5 welcoming to other cultures I think Portuguese culture is tolerant 4.59 1.829 0.836 62 76.5 11 13.6 8 9.9 of racial, ethnic, cultural differences Sometimes I feel I am treated differently 4.77 1.372 0.837 23 28.4 45 55.6 13 16.0 because of my cultural background In my perception poor English language 4.14 1.656 0.840 39 48.1 27 33.3 15 18.5 skills of all students limit social interaction among students I think Portuguese students reluctance 4.84 1.436 0.836 29 35.8 28 34.6 24 29.6 to use English limits social interaction between Portuguese and foreign students I think intercultural social activities 5.33 1.225 0.833 48 59.3 11 13.6 22 27.2 are satisfactory I think international student diversity 5.53 1.415 0.833 61 75.3 4 4.9 16 19.8 on campus is satisfactory Social experience 4.72 1.122 I think Portuguese students are open to interaction with foreign students and to establishing close friendships with foreign students 4.91 5.831 0.851 27 33.3 33 40.7 21 25.9 (Continued.) Studies in Higher Education 1645