Building Literacy Across the Curriculum Jim Cummins The University of Toronto New Jersey TESOL/Bilingual Education Conference May 31, 2012
Overview Don t believe everything you are told! Developing a healthy skepticism about scientifically proven policies; What is the nature of academic language and how does it relate to literacy development? What teaching strategies are most effective for developing bilingual/ell students language and literacy competencies? The importance of the affective dimension (identity investment) in determining students academic engagement; Getting on the same page a whole-school approach.
Segment 1 Don t believe everything you are told! Developing a healthy skepticism about scientifically proven policies; Two examples: Interpreting low ELL performance after 1 year of learning English as an indicator of bad teaching ; Failure to acknowledge that systematic phonics teaching is largely unrelated to reading comprehension after grade 1.
Evidence-free Policy Making: ELL ELL students typically require at least 5 years to catch up academically to native-speakers; by contrast, basic conversational fluency is usually acquired within 1-2 years. For example: After three years of English-only instruction, a mere 12 percent of English language learners in California had acquired sufficient academic English to be re-designated as English-proficient Parrish, T., Merickel, A., Perez, M., Linquanti, R., et al. (2006). Effects of the implementation of Proposition 227 on the education of English learners, K-12: Findings from a five-year evaluation (final report). Palo Alto and San Francisco: American Institutes for Research and WestEd. Therefore, it is unbelievably stupid and irresponsible to interpret low ELL performance after 1 or 2 years of learning English as indicative of inadequate instruction.
Evidence-free Policy Making: Reading (1) The National Reading Panel (NRP) (2000) adopted a narrow focus regarding what constituted legitimate research (only experimental and quasi-experimental research was considered); A major finding of the NRP was that there is strong evidence substantiating the impact of systematic phonics instruction on learning to read (p. 2-132); The $6 billion Reading First program predominantly funded programs that incorporated an intensive phonics focus in the early grades; The role of print access and literacy engagement was ignored despite extensive research documenting its impact on reading comprehension.
Evidence-free Policy Making: Reading (2) What the NRP Actually Found Policy-makers and many researchers ignored the fact that for normally achieving and low achieving readers, systematic phonics instruction showed no relationship to reading comprehension beyond Grade 1. Ehri, Nunes, Stahl, and Willows (2001) acknowledge this pattern as follows: Among the older students in 2nd through 6th grades... phonics instruction was not effective for teaching spelling (d = 0.09) or teaching reading comprehension (d = 0.12) (p. 418). [R]eaders in 2 nd through 6 th grades classified as low achieving (LA) revealed no overall effects of phonics instruction (p. 418).
Evidence-free Policy Making: Reading (3) $6 Billion largely wasted because research was ignored Reading First Impact Study: Final Report (November 2008) Reading First did not produce a statistically significant impact on student reading comprehension test scores in grades one, two or three. (2008, p. xv) Reading First produced a positive and statistically significant impact on decoding among first grade students tested in one school year (spring 2007). (2008, p. xvi) Reading First had no statistically significant impacts on student engagement with print. (p. xxii)
Segment 2 What is the nature of academic language and how does it relate to literacy development? We need to distinguish between: Conversational fluency Discrete language skills Academic language proficiency
What Is English Language Proficiency? Conversational Fluency The ability to carry on a conversation in familiar face-toface situations; Developed by the vast majority of native speakers by the time they enter school at age 5; Involves use of high frequency words and simple grammatical constructions; ELL students typically require 1-2 years to attain peerappropriate levels.
What Is English Language Proficiency? Discrete Language Skills Refers to the rule-governed aspects of language (phonological awareness, phonics, spelling, grammar, punctuation, etc.); Can be developed in two independent ways: (a) by explicit instruction, and (b) through immersion in a literacy-rich home or school environment where meanings are elaborated through language and attention is drawn to literate forms of language (e.g. letters on the pages of books); ELL students can learn these specific language skills concurrently with their development of basic vocabulary and conversational fluency. However, there is little direct transference to other aspects of language proficiency (e.g., vocabulary).
What Is English Language Proficiency? Academic Language Proficiency Includes knowledge of the less frequent vocabulary of English as well as the ability to interpret and produce increasingly complex written language; ELL students typically require at least 5 years to attain grade expectations in language and literacy skills; In order to catch up to grade norms within 6 years, ELL students must make 15 months gain in every 10-month school year; Because academic language is found primarily in books, extensive reading is crucial in enabling students to catch up; Frequent writing, across genres, is also crucial in developing academic writing skills.
Social Studies Vocabulary (grade 5) amend boundary compromise consultation annexation colonist commerce convention bombarded cavalry constitution convince declaration independence perpetual ratify dissolved induced petition rebellion dynasty inference preamble representatives resolution sentiments statement traditions revolt siege surveyor treaty revolution skirmish sustain tyrants
Sample of Most Frequent 150 Academic Words accelerate contribute fluctuate notion achieve convert focus obtain adjacent create formulate obvious sequence affect criterion function series alternative crucial generate shift analyze data guarantee occur signify approach define passive similar approximate definite period simultaneous arbitrary demonstrate
The Cognate Connection speed velocidad velocity sick enfermo infirm meet encontrar encounter
Segment 3 What teaching strategies are most effective for developing bilingual/ell students language and literacy competencies? Key insight: If academic language is found primarily in printed text, then it is not surprising that print access and literacy engagement are of central importance in promoting academic language proficiency.
Understanding Literacy Development in Multilingual School Contexts: What the Research Is Saying Literacy Achievement Print Access/Literacy Engagement Scaffold Meaning (input and output) Connect to students lives (activate prior knowledge) Affirm identity Extend language
The Centrality of Literacy Engagement Amount and range of reading and writing; Use of effective strategies for deep understanding of text; Positive affect and identity investment in reading and writing; Guthrie notes that in all spheres of life (e.g. driving a car, doing surgery, playing golf, gourmet cooking, etc.) participation is key to the development of proficiency. He notes that certainly some initial lessons are valuable for driving a car or typing on a keyboard, but expertise spirals upward mainly with engaged participation (2004, p. 8).
Literacy engagement plays a key role in promoting reading comprehension OECD s PISA Study Data on the reading attainment of 15-year olds in 27 countries showed that the level of a student s reading engagement is a better predictor of literacy performance than his or her socioeconomic background, indicating that cultivating a student s interest in reading can help overcome home disadvantages (OECD, 2004, p. 8). The authors point out that engagement in reading can be a consequence, as well as a cause, of higher reading skill, but the evidence suggests that these two factors are mutually reinforcing (p. 8). OECD (2010) about one-third of the negative impact of SES is mediated through reading engagement (or lack thereof). In other words, schools can significantly reduce the effects of SES by strongly promoting literacy engagement
Access to Print results in Higher Reading Achievement Reports of studies that use rigorous research designs show that increasing children s access to print material generally does improve children s outcomes. Increasing children s access to print material appears to produce more positive attitudes toward reading, increases the amount of reading that children do, increases children s emergent literacy skills, and improves children s reading achievement. (Lindsay, 2010).
Scaffold Language Scaffolding refers to the provision of instructional supports that enable learners to carry out tasks and perform academically at a higher level than they would be capable of without these supports. Graphic organizers Visuals in texts Demonstrations Hands-on experiences Collaborative group work Encouraging L1 use (e.g., writing) as a means of transferring knowledge and skills from L1 to L2 Learning strategies (planning tasks, visualisation, grouping/classifying, note-taking/summarising, questioning for clarification, making use of multiple resources fortask completion) Language clarification (explanation, dictionary use, etc.)
What Do We Know about Learning? Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000) How People Learn Engaging prior understandings new understandings are constructed on a foundation of existing understandings and experiences (Donovan & Bransford, 2005, p. 4). Integrating factual knowledge with conceptual frameworks deep understanding of subject matter transforms factual information into usable knowledge (Bransford et al. p. 16). Using metacognitive strategies to take active control over the learning process a metacognitive or self-monitoring approach can help students develop the ability to take control of their own learning, consciously define learning goals, and monitor their progress in achieving them (Donovan & Bransford, 2005, p. 10)
Learning= the Integration of New Information and Skills with Existing Information and Skills Snow, Burns and Griffin (1998: 219) express the centrality of background knowledge as follows: Every opportunity should be taken to extend and Every opportunity should be taken to extend and enrich children s background knowledge and understanding in every way possible, for the ultimate significance and memorability of any word or text depends on whether children possess the background knowledge and conceptual sophistication to understand its meaning.
Segment 4 The importance of the affective dimension (identity investment) in determining students academic engagement Key insight: Devaluation of identity is a cause of underachievement. Gloria Ladson-Billings: The problem that African-American students face is the constant devaluation of their culture both in school and in the larger society (1995, p. 485).
Devaluation of Identity as a Cause of Underachievement Extensive evidence from both the sociological/anthropological and psychological research literature demonstrates the impact of societal power relations on minority group achievement Students who come from social groups whose identities (culture, language, religion, etc.) have been devalued in the wider society tend to experience disproportionate academic failure.
The Deeper Roots of Underachievement Isidro Lucas (1981): Study of Puerto Rican drop-out students in Chicago: All my dropout respondents spoke good understandable English.They hadn t learned math, or social sciences, or natural sciences, unfortunately. But they had learned English No dropout mentioned lack of English as the reason for quitting. As it evolved through questionnaires and interviews, theirs was a more subtle story of alienation, of not belonging, of being push-outs To my surprise, dropouts expressed more confidence in their ability to speak English than did the stay-ins (seniors in high school). For their part, stay-ins showed more confidence in their Spanish than did dropouts I had to conclude that identity, expressed in one s confidence and acceptance of the native culture was more a determinant of school stay-in power than the mere acquisition of the coding-decoding skills involved in a different language, English. (p. 19)
What Image of the Child Are We Sketching in Our Instruction? Capable of becoming bilingual and biliterate? Capable of higher-order thinking and intellectual accomplishments? Capable of creative and imaginative thinking? Capable of creating literature and art? Capable of generating new knowledge? Capable of thinking about and finding solutions to social issues?
Affirm Student Identities Newcomer students are often in a vulnerable position they are unable to show their intelligence, personality, sense of humour, etc. to teachers and peers. They may have gone from a school situation where they were very competent academically to one where they now feel incompetent. When newcomer students feel welcomed in the school and classroom by teachers and peers, they will engage academically much more actively and effectively.
Tomer s Identity Text
Identity Texts: a tool for literacy engagement and identity investment Identity texts refer to artifacts that students produce. Students take ownership of these artifacts as a result of having invested their identities in them. Once produced, these texts (written, spoken, visual, musical, or combinations in multimodal form) hold a mirror up to the student in which his or her identity is reflected back in a positive light. Students invest their identities in these texts which then become ambassadors of students identities. When students share identity texts with multiple audiences (peers, teachers, parents, grandparents, sister classes, the media, etc.) they are likely to receive positive feedback and affirmation of self in interaction with these audiences.
Segment 5 Getting on the same page a whole-school approach Key insight: Research evidence matters! If policy-makers are promoting evidence-free policies that simultaneously hinder learning among bilingual/ell students and damage teacher effectiveness and morale, then educators within schools must develop school-based policies that reflect the empirical evidence and express the collective educational identity of the school.
Planning Instructional Change within Schools: Articulating Choices and Taking Collective Action Instructional Options Content How do we adapt curriculum materials to link with students prior knowledge and cultural background (e.g. purchase dual language books) and also to promote critical thinking about texts and issues (e.g. whose perspectives are represented in a text)? Cognition How can we modify instruction to evoke higher levels of literacy engagement and critical thinking? Tools How can we use tools such as computers, digital cameras, camcorders, web pages, etc? Assessment How can we complement mandated standardized assessments in order to present to students, parents, and administrators a more valid account of student progress? (e.g. a role for portfolio assessment?) Language/Culture What messages are we giving students and parents about home language and culture? How can we enable students to use their L1 as a powerful tool for learning? Can we increase students identity investment by means of bilingual instructional strategies (teaching for transfer)? Parental Involvement How can we engage parents as co-educators in such a way that their linguistic and cultural expertise is harnessed as fuel for their children s academic progress? Current Realities Where Are We? Vision for the Future Where Do We Want To Be? Getting it Done How Do We Get There?
ELL Students L1 as a Resource Within the Classroom Invite students to: Complete dual-language assignments such as a bilingual advertisement (e.g. to attract visitors to a country or region) or a dual language story or book; Work with same-language partners to discuss a problem and clarify information in the L1 before reporting back in English (e.g. think, pair, share in L1) Create multilingual displays or signs (e.g., high school science teacher gives extra marks for multilingual posters of bodily systems for presentation to younger students from diverse backgrounds). Write first drafts, notes, journal entries, and outlines in L1; Provide bilingual support for newcomers (e.g. class partners or cross-grade tutors who speak the language of the newcomer can highlight or translate key concepts). (Based on Ontario Ministry of Education (2006) Many Roots, Many Voices. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/manyroots/)
Cultural Diversity as a Resource Within the Classroom Geography: Have students present a climate graph on their country of origin to use their personal and previous experiences as a basis for information. Physical education: Have students teach the class a game or activity from another country including key words and phrases related to the game. English/language arts: Invite students to create poems in their two languages. If they are newcomers they may write first in their L1 and then translate the poem to English (with help from classmates, community volunteers, or bilingual teachers); if they are more fluent in English than L1, they can write first in English and then get help from classmates, parents, or teachers to translate the poem into the L1. All subject areas: Ask English language learners and English-speaking students to work together to create dual-language posters or brochures on topics being studied. (Ontario Ministry of Education (2006) Many Roots, Many Voices. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/manyroots/)
The Knowledge Base The language of academic success in school is very different from the language we use in everyday conversational interactions. ELL students typically require at least 5 years to catch up academically to native-speakers; by contrast, basic conversational fluency is usually acquired within 1-2 years. Sustained growth in reading and writing skills is strongly related to students level of literacy engagement. All learning builds on a foundation of pre-existing knowledge and skills. Students L1 is an important cognitive resource in scaffolding instruction can be mobilized as a stepping stong to English academic skills
Resources www.multiliteracies.ca (Multiliteracies project) Dual Language Showcase (http://www.thornwoodps.ca/dual/index.htm) ell.stanford.edu (Understanding Language Project, Stanford University; highly relevant articles on the nature of academic language and how to teach it) Literacy, Technology and Diversity: Teaching for Success in Changing Times (Jim Cummins, Kristin Brown, & Dennis Sayers; Allyn & Bacon, 2007) (http://www.allynbaconmerrill.com/bookstore/product.asp?isbn=02053 8935X&rl=1) IdentityTexts: The Collaborative Creation of Power in Multilingual Schools (Edited by Jim Cummins and Margaret Early; Trentham Books, 2011) http://trentham.styluspub.com/books/bookdetail.aspx?productid=2417 27
http://www.multiliteracies.ca/index.php/folio/viewproject/219
Pearson Has Your ELL Solutions! Contact: Madeline Franco-DeFaria Northeast ELL Manager madeline.franco-defaria@pearson.com