Characteristics of Academic Writing

Characteristics of Academic Writing Learning & Academic Skills Centre CRICOS 00111D TOID 3059

Outline Why do I need to write at university? What is academic writing? Vocabulary, Syntax, Discourse

LAS website swi.nu/las

Why do I need to write at university? Please discuss.

Writing as students and academics In Higher education, ideas and knowledge are: Established Accepted Contested through writing Ongoing conversation controlled by genres.

Writing in your profession Meeting minutes Letters Work records Proposals/tenders Reports Journal articles/publications Papers for conferences

Genre What is that? A particular type of text: A story, report, opinion piece

Let s talk What kind of genres do you think you will engage with in your degree. Please discuss.

Common genres in FHAD Essays Research Reports Literature reviews PowerPoint presentations/slides Reflections Case studies

LAS workshops https://www.swinburne.edu.au/media/swinburneeduau/currentstudents/docs/pdf/las_workshop_flyer_s2_2017.pdf

Assessment task analysis

The 3 elements of an assessment task analysis

1.Main Ideas Content words and phrases in the assignment task 2.Directive Verbs Directive/instruction verbs 3.Predictive thesis Initial answer to assignment question

Directive/Direction verbs Analyse Break down to find main ideas; then show how they are related and why they are important Apply Use what you know and understand about an idea or principle to comment on or solve a problem. Argue Systematically support or reject a position by presenting reasons and evidence; indicate your awareness of other points of view Assess Consider all the facts of the situation, and judge what action should be taken, or consider all the ideas before you, and consider their worth Define Give clear, concise, authoritative meanings. Sometimes meanings extend beyond definitions, so mention limitations of definitions if appropriate

Clarify Clearly explain the main points (which could be facts or opinions) Comment on Discuss, criticise or explain meaning of (the topic). Do not describe. Compare Show both the similarities and the differences Contrast Emphasise the differences (between situations, ideas or actions) Criticise Give your judgement or reasoned opinion of something, showing its good and bad points Critique Analyse and give your judgement about the worth of a point of view or an action; often involves using a theoretical framework

Describe Recall and organise facts, processes or events in a logical manner. Do not explain or interpret Discuss Investigate & examine, showing that you recognise there are several ways one can approach this topic. You should build an argument supporting the case you wish to make, giving detailed points for and against.

Enumerate List, name (and perhaps number) the main ideas, one by one Evaluate Give your judgement, after showing points for and against Explain Focus on HOW and WHY something is; Needs some analysis before you can assign and interpret meanings Examine Look very closely at the details

Illustrate Explain or make clear by concrete (real) examples. Maybe use figures and diagrams Interpret Give the meaning according to your own opinions, based on evidence, or according to some theoretical framework Investigate Examine thoroughly, finding out all the facts, especially looking for relationships between them eg causes; results

Justify Show why you think this is correct. Give reasons for the opinion Outline Give an organised description of main ideas, with some supportive information but omitting minor details Profile Give an outline of; i.e. do not fill in all the details but cover the topic Prove Show by argument (you must provide evidence) that something is true

Relate Show the connections between things and to what extent they affect each other or are alike Review Look critically at all the important parts State Specify the main points in precise terms. Summarise Give a concise account of the main ideas. Omit details and examples Trace Describe the progress or history of a topic

Let s try http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/busine ss-economics/economics/2.3.2.xml

Your first assignment

Let s turn panic into bliss

Close your eyes

And imagine you are holding your first assignment brief in your hand, and now imagine the perfect day to work on an assignment 1. The perfect work environment, surroundings 2. The perfect work station: dream computer etc. 3. All the people/animals you want to have around when you are writing on your assignment 4. Imagine the good feeling you get when you research something really interesting

Train your brain Do this exercise: When you get your first assignment When you are nearing an assignment deadline When you sit in the library and it is stuffy and too crowded When your computer crashes...

Example assignment task In the ancient Urbu community of Upper River, women were considered very important. Discuss. Think about this for a while.

The 3 elements of an assessment task analysis

1.Main Ideas Content words and phrases in the assignment task 2.Directive Verbs Directive/instruction verbs 3.Predictive thesis Initial answer to assignment question

What are the main ideas here?

In the ancient Urbu community of Upper River, women were considered very important. Discuss.

The 5W, 1H questions Where? Upper River When? Ancient times Who? Urbu community; women What? Women considered very important Why? ----------- How? -----------

1.Main Ideas Content words and phrases in the assignment task 2.Directive Verbs Directive/instruction verbs 3.Predictive thesis Initial answer to assignment question

What is the directive verb?

In the ancient Urbu community of Upper River, women were considered very important. Discuss.

Discuss Investigate and examine, showing that you recognise there are several ways one can approach this topic. You should build an argument supporting the case you wish to make/position you want to take, giving detailed points for and against.

In the ancient Urbu community of Upper River, women were considered very important. Discuss.

Let s write

Pre-writing exercises Can be done before researching and after and anytime in between Free writing/webbing/clustering Brainstorming/mind-mapping Talk about the topic with peers, family, anybody who is happy or not to listen http://writingcenter.unc.edu/faculty-resources/tips-on-teaching-writing/in-classwriting-exercises/

In the ancient Urbu community of Upper River, women were considered very important. Discuss. Write non-stop on this topic: Keep the pen moving If you get stuck, write I m stuck Don t worry about spelling, grammar, punctuation Words, dot points, unrelated sentences, non-sensical ideas When finished: Read Any interesting ideas, links between ideas?

1.Main Ideas Content words and phrases in the assignment task 2.Directive Verbs Directive/instruction verbs 3.Predictive thesis Initial answer to assignment question

What is a predictive thesis? An assumption that has not yet been proven by research.

Why do I need a predictive thesis?

Purposeful reading The predictive thesis guides your research.

How to create a predictive thesis? You could start by rewriting your assignment question

In the ancient Urbu community of Upper River, women were considered very important. Discuss.

Investigate and examine, showing that you recognise there are several ways one can approach this topic. You should build an argument supporting the case you wish to make/position you want to take, giving detailed points for and against.

What might your predictive thesis be? 1. Women were considered to be very important in the ancient Urbu Community of Upper River as/because... 2. Women were considered to be very important in the ancient Urbu Community of Upper River compared to... 3. Women were considered to be very important in the ancient Urbu Community of Upper River, however,...

What might your predictive thesis be? 1. Women were considered to be very important in the ancient Urbu Community of Upper River as... 2. Women were considered to be very important in the ancient Urbu Community of Upper River compared to... 3. Women were considered to be very important in the ancient Urbu Community of Upper River, however,...

Your predictive thesis can be revised after research

M Main Ideas ain Ideas (5W, 1H) Directive In the ancient Urbu community of Upper River, women were considered very important. Directive Verbs Verbs Discuss. Predictive/ Women were considered to be very Predictive/ Initial Thesis Initial Thesis important in the Urbu Community of Upper River, however, this importance did not give them equality or power to make their own decisions.

The writing process

What are the different steps of the academic writing process?

Let s try Create a quick step-by-step guide, eg. : 1. Task analysis 2.... 3.

Research Analyse Task / Question Reflect / Analyse / Edit Read / take notes Organise/ Write

The essay What is it?

The essay. What is it? French essai = A journey/ a challenge

Example essay questions

Examine the social paradigms of modernity and postmodernity associated with the subterranean public toilets in Taylor Square, Darlinghurst. Discuss the use of digital storytelling in the teaching and learning of language and critically report on one journal article that investigates the use of digital storytelling in the language-learning context. Comprehensive clinician accountability and clinical governance reduces the likelihood of errors being committed in the delivery of health care. How can emotions be incorporated meaningfully into design practice? Discuss.

Essay structure

The essay should also include... In-text references Reference list

Without a plan The essay plan Imagine having to build a 10 story building. You need a plan. With a plan

Time is limited

Plan 1. Resources: contractors, materials 2. Timeline: material delivery, construction 3. Measurements 4. Floor maps

Plan: Resources Appointments with LAS staff, library staff, tutors, lecturer/tutor List of available and useful reading materials (books, articles etc.)

Plan: Timeline Set due dates on a calendar How much time will I spend on Research, Draft Revision Printing

Plan: Measurements Word limits 1st word in Intro to last word in conclusion: The reference list does not count Keep within + or 10% of word limit: 1500 word essay - 150 words over or under Loss of marks if essay is too long/too short

Plan: Measurements Format requirements Line spacing: 1.5.never single space an essay. Font size: Should be 10 or 12 but ask your lecturer Margins: 2.54 all sides but ask your lecturer Page numbers: ask your tutor

Plan: Measurements Research requirements Which referencing system must I use? Harvard, APA? http://www.swinburne.edu.au/library/referencing/ How many journal articles should I refer to and list in my reference list? https://www.swinburne.edu.au/library/search/

You need floor maps etc.

The essay writing plan

3 part structure with Introduction / body / conclusion Revise plan during research, if required.

Different types of essays in FHAD Generally: Descriptive Analytical Persuasive Critical

Bloom s taxonomy

Descriptive essay: Facts/information Instruction verbs in assignment brief could be:

Directive/Direction verbs Analyse Break down to find main ideas; then show how they are related and why they are important Define Give clear, concise, authoritative meanings. Sometimes meanings extend beyond definitions, so mention limitations of definitions if appropriate Clarify Clearly explain the main points (which could be facts or opinions) Contrast Emphasise the differences (between situations, ideas or actions)

Outline Give an organised description of main ideas, with some supportive information but omitting minor details Profile Give an outline of; i.e. do not fill in all the details but cover the topic

Descriptive essay: Facts/information Instruction verbs in assignment brief could be: Identify, clarify, report, list, name, state, record, summarise, collect, define, describe...

Descriptive prompts What is this about? What is the context? What is the main point, problem, focus? Where does it take place? Who is this by, for? Who is involved? Who is affected? When does this occur?

Analytic prompts How does this occur? How does it work theory, practice, context? How do factors affect one another? How do parts fit into the whole? Why did this occur? Why was that done? Why this argument, theory, suggestion solution? Why not something else? What if this were wrong? What are the alternatives? What if there were a problem? What if a factor is added, removed, altered?

Analytical essay: descriptive & 1. Provides facts or information 2. Re-organisation of information into categories or relationships Instruction verbs in assignment brief could be:

Directive/Direction verbs Analyse Break down to find main ideas; then show how they are related and why they are important Comment on Discuss, criticise or explain meaning of (the topic). Do not describe. Compare Show both the similarities and the differences Contrast Emphasise the differences (between situations, ideas or actions)

Enumerate List, name (and perhaps number) the main ideas, one by one Examine Look very closely at the details Relate Show the connections between things and to what extent they affect each other or are alike Review Look critically at all the important parts

Analytical essay: descriptive & Instruction verbs in assignment brief could be: Analyse, compare, contrast, relate, examine, classify, etc.

Persuasive essay: descriptive & analytical & 1. Provides facts or information 2. Re-organisation of information into categories or relationships 3.Your point of view Word choices in your writing: More convincing, problem, opportunity, succeed, should Instruction verbs in assignment brief:

Directive/Direction verbs Analyse Break down to find main ideas; then show how they are related and why they are important Argue Systematically support or reject a position by presenting reasons and evidence; indicate your awareness of other points of view

Discuss Investigate & examine, showing that you recognise there are several ways one can approach this topic. You should build an argument supporting the case you wish to make, giving detailed points for and against. Enumerate List, name (and perhaps number) the main ideas, one by one Evaluate Give your judgement, after showing points for and against Explain Focus on HOW and WHY something is; Needs some analysis before you can assign and interpret meanings

Persuasive essay: descriptive & analytical & Instruction verbs in assignment brief: Argue, evaluate, discuss, take a position

Critical essay: descriptive & analytical & persuasive &... 1. Provides facts or information 2. Re-organisation of information into categories or relationships 3. Your point of view 4. At least one other point of view Instruction verbs in your assignment brief:

Contrast Emphasise the differences (between situations, ideas or actions) Criticise Give your judgement or reasoned opinion of something, showing its good and bad points Critique Analyse and give your judgement about the worth of a point of view or an action; often involves using a theoretical framework

Critical essay: descriptive & analytical & persuasive &... Instruction verbs in your assignment brief: critique, debate, disagree, evaluate

The introduction The funnel

Introduction https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kgv_zjnwpbu

Background statement Background statement Generalstatement statement about the subject General or question about the subject relates to tothe experience/knowledge Relates thereaders readers experience/knowledge 1 or more sentences 1 more sentences orthat narrow the subject to the particular aspect you To narrow thediscussing subject towards your hypothesis will be can be aof paraphrase of the+essay sometimes This could be this a paraphrase the essay questions definitions questions) + definitions of terms Thesis statement Thesis statement Main claim/your hypothesis/answer to assignment question Main point/claim of your essay/hypothesis It briefly tells the reader the outline of the essay the Briefly tells reader the outline of essay-major ideas to come. major ideas to come.

Example assignment task In the ancient Urbu community of Upper River, women were considered very important. Discuss.

Introduction Anthropologists have known for some time that the people of the Upper River in ancient Urbu displayed unusual gender roles for their times. It has often been claimed that the women in particular were given high status. However, this essay will argue that although the women were very important in the Upper River, this importance did not give them equality or power to make their own decisions.

Let s have a look

Anthropologists have known for some time that the people of the Upper River in ancient Urbu displayed unusual gender roles for their times. It has often been claimed that the women in particular were given high status. However, this essay will argue that although the women were very important in the Upper River, this importance did not give them equality or power to make their own decisions.

Let s try Looking at this introduction, what do you think the author is planning to write about and in what order? Try to write up a plan for the body of this essay.

Anthropologists have known for some time that the people of the Upper River in ancient Urbu displayed unusual gender roles for their times. It has often been claimed that the women in particular were given high status. However, this essay will argue that 1. Although the women were very important in the Upper River, 2. this importance did not give them equality or 3. power to make their own decisions. 131

The body Extended answer to essay question. Make sure: 1 paragraph = 1 main argument/idea Flow/coherence

Anthropologists have known for some time that the people of the Upper River in ancient Urbu displayed unusual gender roles for their times. It has often been claimed that the women in particular were given high status. However, this essay will argue that although the 1. women were very important in the Upper River, this importance did not give them equality or power to make their own decisions.

Paragraph 1 women were very important in the Upper River. Why? Sourcing of food Cultural life Support: A Paragraph on... Women gather roots and fruit, grow vegetables; men hunt but not often Important roles of women in cultural and spiritual life

But!!

Anthropologists have known for some time that the people of the Upper River in ancient Urbu displayed unusual gender roles for their times. It has often been claimed that the women in particular were given high status. However, this essay will argue that although the women were very important in the Upper River, this importance 2. did not give them equality or power to make their own decisions. 136

Paragraph 2 this did not give them equality Why? Decision making hierarchy Food allocation processes Support: A paragraph on.. Not women but men make all major decisions Food allocated only by men

Paragraph 3 this did not give them power to make important decisions. Why? Leadership Physical strength Support: A paragraph on.. Only men can become leaders Men have physical power over women

Conclusion Summarise the main ideas Come out with your ideas your conclusions.your answer to the original essay question No new material: No new references and no new arguments

Example conclusion In conclusion, women s economic, social, cultural and family contributions to the society are very important and essential - but it does not earn them power to make their own decisions or equality within their community. The question of women s importance cannot be answered in a simple way. Women are important and they are not. It depends on the meaning of the word important. If it means necessary to the community, then the answer is yes. If it means powerful and equal to men, then the answer is no.

In conclusion, this suggests that women s economic, social, cultural and family contributions to the society are very important and essential - but it does not earn them power to make their own decisions or equality within their community. The question of women s importance cannot be answered in a simple way. Women are important and they are not. It depends on the meaning of the word important. If it means necessary to the community..then the answer is yes. If it means powerful and equal to men then the answer is no.

Essay writing links http://unilifeapps.curtin.edu.au/thelearningcentre/display?book=3&pag e=23

Great writing tips http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/artdesign/index.xml

Organisation of scientific research papers

Reporting Genres

Report structure: Lab report etc. 1.Title page 2. Abstract 3. Table of contents 4. Introduction 5. Methods 6. Results 7. Discussion 8. Conclusions 9. Recommendations 10. References

1. The Title Page includes The title of your report, your name, your lecturer s/tutor s name, due date 2. The Abstract is. A short concise summary of the report. States purpose and scope of report Brief analysis of the research and methodology Outline of most significant findings and recommendation 3. Table of contents Sections and subsections of report and corresponding page numbers

4. The Introduction Background, purpose and objectives of your report Scope and limitations of the report possible impact on results and recommendations 5.The Methods: The way the research was conducted. Materials, participants, surveys and literature used Actions you took to collect the data: What you did and how you did it. 6.The Results States findings (what happened?) May include tables, charts, figures, photos

7.The Discussion Examination of results and discussion of reasons for those results Discrepancies or surprise findings Adequacy of methodology analysed Explores the application of theory to support the premise of the report 8.The Conclusion Summary of main points and findings Were the reports objectives and purpose achieved? 9.The Recommendations Questions the findings and analyses the discussion section to develop a realistic list of recommendations 10. References List all the sources you have used within the report

Sample report: Lab report http://www.apastyle.org/manual/related/sample-experiment-paper-1.pdf

Sample report: Investigative report https://www.swinburne.edu.au/media/swinburneeduau/currentstudents/docs/pdf/sample_text_4_investigative_report_bhopal.pdf

Revision https://www.swinburne.edu.au/media/swinburneeduau/currentstudents/docs/pdf/editing-your-work.pdf

Reverse outlining http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/reverse-outline/

a.r.r.r. REVISION METHOD add rearrange remove replace

Removing What unnecessary pieces of information can I remove?

Revision https://www.swinburne.edu.au/media/swinburneeduau/currentstudents/docs/pdf/editing-your-work.pdf

The marking guide/assessment rubric

Why? The marking guide/assessment rubric shows you How marks will be allocated What to aim for (see criteria for highest possible mark) Shows in detail what you need to include Make sure You fulfil each of the criteria Check your essay/report against the marking guide Writing checklist: Tick off each section, checking your assignment meets the requirements

Sentences and Paragraphs Sentences should not be too long. Why? The meaning can easily be lost: 1 to 2 lines Paragraphs should not be too long: 1/3 to ½ of a page

A politics presuming the ontological indifference of all minority social identities as defining oppressed or dominated groups, a politics in which differences are sublimated in the constitution of a minority identity (the identity politics which is increasingly being questioned within feminism itself) can recover the differences between social identities only on the basis of common and therefore commensurable experiences of marginalization, which experiences in turn yield a political practice that consists largely of affirming the identities specific to those experiences.

Calvin &Hobbes

Funny https://www.timeshighereducation.com/comment/how-not-to-write-fourteen-tipsfor-aspiring-humanities-academics

The Paragraph The basic structural unit of an academic text: All sentences in a paragraph must be related Each paragraph must be focused on 1 idea about 1 of the essay sub topics That 1 idea is then developed within that 1 paragraph

A good essay/report is like a chain: Readers need to see how one idea is linked to the others 1st paragraph introduces topic/argument, has thesis statement Next paragraph gives information about one related idea Next paragraph gives information about another related idea Next paragraph gives information about another related idea Next paragraph gives information about another related idea Final paragraph summarises the topic

Paragraph structure 2 (sometimes 3) parts: 1. Topic sentence 2. Support 3. (Conclusion)

Topic sentence (main idea) Explanation Support Elaboration Evidence Conclusion (optional)

Australia is a society where economic inequality is pervasive and deeply entrenched. Familiar generalisations about Australia s unique egalitarianism do not match with the factual picture (Tanaka 2013, p.45). The social dynamics at work, and the levels of inequality resulting, are much the same as are found in North America, Western Europe, and middle ranking capitalist economies elsewhere (Smith et al. 2016, p. 102). For example, studies of income and wealth distribution show that in 2013-2014 the top 20% of Australians held 62.1% of the wealth, while the lowest 20% accounted for only 0.9% of wealth (ABS 2015).

Topic sentence (main idea) Explanation Support Elaboration Evidence Conclusion (optional)

Let s try The sentence in red is The sentences in purple is. The sentences in green is. The sentences in orange is (The sentence in blue is )

Australia is a society where economic inequality is pervasive and deeply entrenched. Familiar generalisations about Australia s unique egalitarianism do not match with the factual picture (Tanaka 2013, p. 45). The social dynamics at work, and the levels of inequality resulting, are much the same as are found in North America, Western Europe, and middle ranking capitalist economies elsewhere (Smith et al. 2016, p. 102). For example, studies of income and wealth distribution show that in 2013-2014 the top 20% of Australians held 62.1% of the wealth, while the lowest 20% accounted for only 0.9% of wealth (ABS 2015).

and an optional conclusion These disparities serve to dispel the perceptions that Australia may have avoided the same inequalities that have become institutionalised in other developed capitalist states.

Australia is a society where economic inequality is pervasive and deeply entrenched. Familiar generalisations about Australia s unique egalitarianism do not match with the factual picture (Tanaka 2013, p. 45). The social dynamics at work, and the levels of inequality resulting, are much the same as are found in North America, Western Europe, and middle ranking capitalist economies elsewhere (Smith et al. 2016, p. 102). For example, studies of income and wealth distribution show that in 2013-2014 the top 20% of Australians held 62.1% of the wealth, while the lowest 20% accounted for only 0.9% of wealth (ABS 2015). Ultimately, these disparities serve to dispel the perceptions that Australia may have avoided the same inequalities that have become institutionalised in other developed capitalist states.

Let s try

Topic sentence Women were very important in the Upper river, carrying responsibility for most of the food sourcing and holding important positions in the cultural life.

Paragraph 2 this did not give them equality Why? Decision making hierarchy Food allocation processes Support: A paragraph on.. Not women but men make all major decisions Food allocated only by men

Topic sentence Despite their importance, women were not equal to men in the Upper River, having no place in the decision making hierarchy and no say in the food allocation process.

Coherence When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, the writing is coherent.

Transition markers within and between paragraphs

Transition markers http://unilifeapps.curtin.edu.au/thelearningcentre/display?book=3&pag e=27 http://home.ku.edu.tr/~doregan/writing/cohesion.html

Australia is a society where economic inequality is pervasive and deeply entrenched. Familiar generalisations about Australia s unique egalitarianism do not match with the factual picture (Tanaka 2013, p. 45). The social dynamics at work, and the levels of inequality resulting, are much the same as are found in North America, Western Europe, and middle ranking capitalist economies elsewhere (Smith et al. 2016, p. 102). For example, studies of income and wealth distribution show that in 2013-2014 the top 20% of Australians held 62.1% of the wealth, while the lowest 20% accounted for only 0.9% of wealth (ABS 2015). Ultimately, these disparities serve to dispel the perceptions that Australia may have avoided the same inequalities that have become institutionalised in other developed capitalist states.

Australia is a society where economic inequality is pervasive and deeply entrenched. Subsequently, familiar generalisations about Australia s unique egalitarianism do not match with the factual picture (Tanaka 2013, p. 45). The social dynamics at work, and the levels of inequality resulting, are much the same as are found in North America, Western Europe, and middle ranking capitalist economies elsewhere (Smith et al. 2016, p. 102). For example, studies of income and wealth distribution show that in 2013-2014 the top 20% of Australians held 62.1% of the wealth, while the lowest 20% accounted for only 0.9% of wealth (ABS 2015). Ultimately, these disparities serve to dispel the perceptions that Australia may have avoided the same inequalities that have become institutionalised in other developed capitalist states.

Academic Register We shift registers consistently every day. Consider how we communicate with: Friends vs. Grandparents Teachers vs. Classmates Speaking vs. Writing

Academic Register Pay attention to the tone of the set texts you are reading. Academic writing aims to be objective: Factual Impersonal Unemotional Logical Precise

Passive voice Why use it? If you use the passive voice, the most important participants/events are at beginning of sentence It might be necessary to avoid naming the 'doer Academic writing focuses on who is experiencing an action rather than the doer' The Passive voice is a way to avoid personal pronouns

Let s try Active We encourage students to develop their understanding of the role of grammar in the creation of more formal academic writing.

Passive Students.

Passive Students are encouraged to develop their understanding of the role of grammar in the creation of more formal academic writing.

Nominalisation Why? Why? Focuses discussion on observable phenomena rather than the actions of researchers.

Nominalisation The recession occurred because too many consumer goods were produced. The recession occurred because of an over-production of consumer goods.

Crime is increasing rapidly and causing concern.

Answers: The rapid increase in crime is causing concern.

Beware of Zombie noun sentences Prevention of neurogenesis diminished social avoidance. When we prevented neurogenesis, the mice no longer avoided other mice. Participants read assertions whose veracity was either affirmed or denied by the subsequent presentation of an assessment word. We presented participants with Comprehension checks were used as exclusion criteria. We excluded people who failed to understand instructions. a sentence, followed by the word TRUE or FALSE.

Zombie Nouns http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/23/zombi e-nouns/?_r=0

Avoiding informal language Avoid Contractions (I don t, they wont,...) Abbreviations (approx, ) Abbreviated words (info, )

Avoiding informal language Avoid common but vague or subjective vocabulary Nice: Freud s theory of the...was very nice. Some: Some people really do not like mushrooms. Thing: Reading is a really nice thing. Big: China is very big. Kind of: Tim Winton s books are kind of cool. Bad: Nuclear power is bad. Acronyms are acceptable but must be clarified the first time they are introduced e.g. Faculty of Health, Arts and Design (FHAD).

Hedging Academic discourse is enquiring rather than certain Use: appears to, tends to, suggest that, would seem to, the audience indicates; believe, assume, suggests; often, sometimes..

Why hedging?

Rather than: This occurs whenever there is a downturn in commodity prices. Try this: This tends to occur whenever there is a downturn in commodity prices. Difference between the above statements: The first statement would require evidence of every downturn in commodity prices in order for it to be supported.

Useful sentences Sentence starters Billings (2013, p.134) claims/rejects/questions/states etc.. Research indicates that.. (Billings 2013, p.134). One researcher claims.. (Billings 2013, p.134). In Billing s opinion... (Billings 2013, p.134). Indicating opposition However, Hamond (2012, p.98) demonstrates that.

Useful sentences Opinions from sources Similar Both Hardy (2012) and Thomas (2011) show that Different While Johnson (2013) argues.. Bradley (2011) claims that Johnson (2013) indicates that.. but in contrast, Bradley (2011) claims

70 useful sentences in academic writing https://services.anu.edu.au/research-support/tools-resources/70-usefulsentences-for-academic-writing

Writer s Block http://writingcenter.unc.edu/faculty resources/tips on teaching writing/in class writing exercises/

Grammar https://www.swinburne.edu.au/media/swinburneeduau/currentstudents/docs/pdf/handy-grammar-hints.pdf