Creating Multicultural Citizens Despite the largest-scale decentralisation of education since 1999, which broadly led to the marketisation of education, it is not clear how school education responds to the multicultural realities of Indonesian society and ethnoreligious conflicts. Creating Multicultural Citizens presents a comprehensive evaluation of contemporary education in the largest democratic Muslim country in the world, focusing on the ways in which education prepares citizens for a multicultural society. It thoroughly examines the state-religion-community roles in the field of education in developing the Indonesian people. Using a qualitative ethnographic methodology, the author presents six case studies of different schools, including religious, nonreligious, state, and private schools, in two different provinces in Indonesia. It particularly explores: Evolving but contested theories of multiculturalism and multicultural education; Education changes and reforms in post-suharto Indonesia; Government policies for multicultural education and school curriculum; School leadership for education for diversity; Roles of religious education in schools in nurturing multicultural beliefs, values, and attitudes; Extracurricular activities and tolerance; Students perspectives of multiculturalism and the ideal society; The promising development of a pesantren (Islamic boarding school in establishing multicultural education. It is the first book to explore how education in Indonesia helps contribute to the creation of tolerant and multicultural citizens and is essential reading for anyone involved in Indonesian education and international higher education. Dr Raihani is a senior lecturer in education studies at Sultan Syarif Kasim State Islamic University (UIN Suska), Riau, Indonesia, and a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Western Australia. 6241-189-0FM.indd 1 8/28/2013 1:19:27 PM
Routledge Critical Studies in Asian Education Series Editors: S. Gopinathan and Wing On Lee Primary School English-Language Education in Asia From Policy to Practice Edited by Bernard Spolsky and Young-in Moon A Critical Ethnography of Westerners Teaching English in China Shanghaied in Shanghai Phiona Stanley Controversial History Education in Asian Contexts Edited by Mark Baildon, Loh Kah Seng, Ivy Maria Lim, Gül Inanç and Junaidah Jaffar Internationalization of Higher Education in East Asia Trends of student mobility and impact on education governance Edited by Ka-Ho Mok and Kar Ming Yu Creating Multicultural Citizens A Portrayal of Contemporary Indonesian Education Raihani Muslim Education in the 21st Century Asian Perspectives Edited by Sa eda Buang and Phyllis Ghim-Lian Chew 6241-189-0FM.indd 2 8/28/2013 1:19:27 PM
Creating Multicultural Citizens A Portrayal of Contemporary Indonesian Education Raihani 6241-189-0FM.indd 3
First published 2014 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business 2014 Raihani The right of Raihani to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data [CIP data] ISBN: 978-0-415-84414-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-85171-6 (ebk) Typeset in Galliard by Apex CoVantage, LLC 6241-189-0FM.indd 4
Contents List of Figures List of Tables Preface Acknowledgements Foreword vii ix xi xiii xv 1 Introduction 1 2 Multiculturalism and Education 18 3 Reforms in Indonesian Education 39 4 Policies for Multicultural Education 62 5 School Leadership and Policies 85 6 Teaching Religion: Policy and Implementation 109 7 Extracurricular Activities and Religious Tolerance 134 8 Imagined Society : Students Ideas of the Ideal Society 153 9 School and Social Justice 173 10 Is Multicultural Education in Pesantren Possible? 193 11 Conclusions 214 References 229 Index 251 6241-189-0FM.indd 5
6241-189-0FM.indd 6
Figures 1.1 Map of Indonesia 4 8.1 An Excerpt of Student Writing: Positive Perceptions of Cultural Diversity 159 6241-189-0FM.indd 7
6241-189-0FM.indd 8
Tables 1.1 Number of Survey Respondents 9 3.1 Number of Schools in Indonesia 2009 2010 44 3.2 Completion Rate in General Schools and Madrasah 47 3.3 Division of Curriculum Development Authorities 51 4.1 The Structure of Senior Secondary Curriculum 71 8.1 Making Friends with Other Backgrounds 160 8.2 Opinions of Interreligious Marriage 161 6241-189-0FM.indd 9
6241-189-0FM.indd 10
Preface This book is one of the outcomes of a research project funded by an Australia Research Council Discovery Project in the years 2009 2011. This is a team project, and the team consists of Professor Lyn Parker from the University of Western Australia, Dr Chang-Yau Hoon from Singapore Management University, and myself. In this project, I was a postdoctoral fellow a position which allowed me to conduct research and write this book independently. This book investigates how education has been used to help create multicultural citizens in Indonesia after the resignation of President Suharto in 1998 and the concomitant reform, bringing democracy and decentralisation. After the reform, conflicts triggered by ethnocentrism and religious fanaticism resulted in hundreds of casualties and thousands of displaced persons. Political and bureaucratic decentralisation since 1999 entailed bureaucratic and cultural problems, and local cultural identities and sentiments were played up by local political actors, undermining the principles of both democracy and meritocracy. In some ways, Indonesia seemed to have become an intolerant Muslim country. Although there are several ways to deal with the increasing potential for conflict, I believe that education is one that needs serious attention from government, researchers, and the community at large, particularly if we want a long-term solution to such problems. Therefore, this book presents a comprehensive evaluation of contemporary education in the largest democratic Muslim country in the world, focusing on the ways in which education prepares citizens for a multicultural society. The topics covered in this book include policies that support the development and implementation of multicultural education, school curricula and programs, school leadership and management, school structures and cultures, and school-community relations. I examine state-community relations in the field of education and their role in developing students to become good Indonesian citizens. I also look critically into the role of religious education in the promotion of tolerance and multiculturalism. Using an ethnographic methodology, I present six case studies of different schools, including religious, nonreligious, state, and private schools, in two different provinces in Indonesia Yogyakarta and Central 6241-189-0FM.indd 11
xii Preface Kalimantan. This is the first book that has evaluated how education in Indonesia contributes to the creation of tolerant and multicultural citizens. Raihani Senior Lecturer of Education Studies at Sultan Syarif Kasim State Islamic University (UIN Suska), Riau Indonesia Adjunct Research Fellow at School of Social Sciences, The University of Western Australia Australia May 2013 6241-189-0FM.indd 12
Acknowledgements My sincere gratitude and thanks go to Professor Lyn Parker, who has played a pivotal role in making the writing of this book possible. During my postdoctoral fellowship, I had been indebted in her great mentorship in which she relentlessly provided support and advice for me to step through such an enlightening, but sometimes lonely and boring, process. During the writing of this book, I did not feel confident enough about each of the chapters until she read and gave me constructive comments and feedback. Also, I felt honoured that she has provided supportive and insightful foreword to this book. Other individuals who deserve my thanks include Dr Chang-Yau (CY) Hoon and Ms Rosalind Hewett. As a team member of the project, CY is a prolific scholar who has contributed significantly to the development of the team through research, publications, and regular team meetings and discussions. He provided invaluable advice regarding this book publication and constructively commented on drafts of some of my writings. Ros helped me in editing the draft of this book and often came up with critical comments for me to develop the book further. She has been meticulous in her work. There are many other people that I cannot mention here one by one, who have played significant parts of my professional and personal life during the postdoctoral fellowship. Among them are Ms Miho Masel, an administrative officer of Asian studies, the University of Western Australia, who had been always helpful and friendly; also Hariyadi, Susi Handayani, Emma, and other colleagues and friends whom I could share thoughts and feelings about anything. I hope that our friendship will last forever. Especially to my wife, Tuti Haryati, and my daughter, Shafa Rizkiya, who are the source of inspiration and motivation, I would like to dedicate this book. Without your love and support, this book might not have been possible. Furthermore, I cannot forget my mother who always prays for my success! Last but not least, my gratitude also goes to Professor Dr H. M. Nazir, Rector of UIN Suska Riau, who formally supported my postdoctoral fellowship for about three years. I am proud that by this book publication and other works of mine, I contribute to the development of our university. 6241-189-0FM.indd 13
6241-189-0FM.indd 14
Foreword It is a great pleasure to write a foreword to this excellent book. The book is not only an insightful ethnographic study of education in Indonesia, but also the first to evaluate how the education system in Indonesia is contributing to the development of a peaceful and tolerant society in Indonesia. Indonesia has long been famous for its wonderful mix of cultural and religious traditions. It has long enjoyed a reputation as one of the world s most peaceful and tolerant countries. Indonesia is the fourth largest country in the world, with nearly 250 million people, and it is the world s largest Muslim-majority country. Furthermore, it is a democratic country, with a free press and free elections. Given the size and density of population, the hundreds of ethnic and linguistic groups, its religious complexity, and archipelagic geography, this famed tolerance seemed almost miraculous. And indeed it all seemed to vanish almost overnight in the violence that erupted late in 1997, with the Asian financial crisis, and the tumult of student demonstrations, conflagrations in towns and cities, and the resignation of President Suharto in 1998. There were attacks on the Chinese in several cities, ethnic violence in Central and West Kalimantan, religious and ethnic conflict in Poso, Central Sulawesi, in Lombok, Halmahera and Ambon, and elsewhere. Longrunning independence movements in East Timor, Papua, and Aceh gained new energy from the defeat of the authoritarian Suharto regime. With the economy in disarray and violent conflicts erupting around the country, some observers began to worry about the possibility of national disintegration. This is the historical context in which this book, and our project, were born and which provided its inspiration. The problems that the book addresses increasing intolerance, ethnic violence, conflict in the name of religion, a rise in violent extremist Islam and Islamism are serious and profound. And yet it is a hopeful book, written by an optimist. The author believes that education can, and should, provide long-term solutions to these problems. His faith in education is idealistic, but he has a deep and rich experience of education in Indonesia, having lived and researched in various villages, towns, and cities in different parts of Indonesia, in pesantren (Islamic boarding schools) and madrasah (Islamic day schools), in state and private schools, in vocational schools, and Christian schools; he has a deep 6241-189-0FM.indd 15
xvi Foreword understanding of Islamic religion and culture, and Arabic language; and he has studied and worked in two Australian universities. Raihani s commitment to and belief in the power of education is inspirational. This does not mean he is uncritical of Indonesia s education system. The early chapters sketch the policies and curricula that, taken together, seem inadequate to the task. The book presents Raihani s nuanced understanding of the difficulties of teachers and schools struggling with contradictory policies, heated local politics, instances of corruption, and stretched resources; on the other hand, it offers ethnographic thick descriptions (Geertz) of interreligious prayers in schools, of students of different backgrounds working together in Red Cross after-school activities, of students in school in post-conflict Central Kalimantan spontaneously offering prayers according to their different faiths, and of a pesantren in Yogyakarta establishing a live-in programme for non-muslims. And it provides a holistic approach that integrates the realities of school life with sophisticated theorizing about education for multiculturalism. Indonesia has come a long way since independence in 1945. At that time, less than 10 percent of the population had attended school. Now, almost all children up to the age of 15 years attend school. Indonesia has engineered its own education revolution. Nevertheless, there are still problems of access to school and the cost of schooling for the poor and for those in remote areas; the academic quality of education needs drastic improvement; and there is a dire need for better employment outcomes for graduates of high school and university. This book turns us in a new direction: It points out that education has other work to do in building Indonesia. It shows us that education has the potential to provide the inspiration and motivation, the language and the tools to enable citizens of diverse cultural and religious identities to live together in peace. This is an enormous new task for education and for Indonesia. Raihani s book guides us along this new road, and I commend it to you wholeheartedly. Lyn Parker Professor in Asian Studies Team Leader of Australia Research Council Discovery Project, Education for a Tolerant and Multicultural Indonesia The University of Western Australia 6241-189-0FM.indd 16