EDUCATION IN THE INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES

EDUCATION IN THE INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES

PLAN EUROPE 2000 PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE EUROPEAN CULTURAL FOUNDATION PROJECT 1 EDUCATING MAN FOR THE XXIst CENTURY Volume 5 "EDUCATION IN THE INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES" Scientific Committee of Project 1 Chairman: Henri Janne (Brussels) Members: J. L. Aranguren (Madrid), Raymond Aron (Paris), Friedrich Edding (Berlin), Alexander King (Paris), Max Kohnstamm (Brussels), M. J. Langeveld (Utrecht), J. A. Lauwerys (Halifax), J. S. Maclure (London), Raymond Poignant (Paris), W. Schultze (Frankfurt), T. Segerstedt (Uppsala), Aldo Visalberghi (Rome). Director: Ladislav Cerych (Paris).

EDUCATION IN THE INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES by RAYMOND POIGNANT SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V. 1973

"Education in the industrialised countries" has been realisedowing tothe support of the Institut de la Communaute Europeenne pour les etudes universitaires (Brussels), the Agnelli Foundation (Turin), the International Institute for Educa- tional Planning (Paris) and the European Cultural Foundation. I97I EUf'opean Cultuf'al Founaation, AmsteJ'dam, Neth8f'lanas I973 English edition by Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by MartÎnus Nijhoif, The Hague, NetherLands. in 1973 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1 st edition 1973 AU f'ights f'es8f'ved, including the f'ight to tf'anslate Of' to f'epf'oduce this book Of' paf'ts thef'eot in any tof'm ISBN 978-94-017-0046-7 ISBN 978-94-015-7592-8 (ebook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-015-7592-8 Transiation: NoeI Lindsay

TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE BY MAX KOHNSTAMM IX THE AUTHOR XII INTRODUCTION A. Objects and limitations of the study B. The exceptional acceleration of the development of education systems in the last two decades, and the evolution of the patterns of employment and national income 3 C. Methodology and plan of the study 6 I THE ORGANISATION AND STATE OF DEVELOP MENT OF GENERAL PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION 1. OPTIONAL PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION - DURATION OF COMPULSORY SCHOOLING AND AGE OF ADMISSION TO SE- CONDARY STUDIES 10 A. Pre-school education 10 B. Duration of compulsory schooling 10 C. Age of admission and duration of general secondary education 12 D. The organisation of the period of compulsory schooling 13 2. THE COMPARATIVE ORGANISATION OF GENERAL SECOND ARY EDUCATION: FROM PARALLEL EDUCATION TO THE PROLONGUED SINGLE-STREAM SCHOOL 13

VI Table of contents A. The two major types of organisation immediately after the second world war 14 B. The factors in the evolution of the structure of general secondary education and the special difficulties of the European countries 18 C. The present organisation of general secondary education 24 3. THE COMPARATIVE STATE OF DEVELOPMENT OF GENERAL PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION 45 A. The development of pre-school education 46 B. Enrolment in elementary classes and terminal primary classes 47 C. The characteristics of general secondary enrolment 50 4. REGIONAL AND SOCIAL DISPARITIES IN SECONDARY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE A. Regional disparities in the development of secondary schooling; their extent and causes 62 B. Secondary schooling and social background 67 61 II THE ORGANISATION AND STATE OF DEVELOP MENT OF SECONDARY VOCATIONAL AND TECHNI CAL EDUCATION AND HIGHER EDUCATION A. The growing role of the school at all levels of vocational and technical training 79 B. The consequences of reforms of general secondary education on the organisation of secondary vocational and technical education 81 C. The growing imprecision of the distinction between secondary vocational and technical education and higher education 82 1. SECONDARY VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION 84 A. United States of America 85 B. The Soviet Union 89 C. Japan 93 D. United Kingdom 96

Table 01 contents VII E. Sweden 100 F. Federal Republic of Germany 105 G. The Benelux countries 108 H. France 114 1. Italy 121 J. The social characteristics of secondary vocational and technical enrolments 125 2. HIGHER EDUCATION 128 A. The general structure of higher education establishments 128 B. The conditions for access to higher education 142 C. The organisation of studies 147 D. The higher education intake ratio and the proportion of women 159 E. The number and distribution of higher education graduates by major discipline 173 F. The performance of higher education 180 G. The social aspects 184 III THE FINAL RESOURCES ALLOCATED TO EDUCATION INTRODUCTION 189 1. The trend of educational expenditure by countries 190 A. The Common Market countries 190 B. Other countries studied 193 2. COMPARISON OF THE RECENT TREND AND PRESENT STATE OF EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURE 194 A. Recurrent costs 195 B. Capital expenditure 197 GENERAL CONCLUSION INTRODUCTION 198

VIII Table 0/ contents 1. THE COMPARATIVE STATE OF DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDA- RY AND POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION AND ADVANCED HIGHER EDUCATION A. Secondary and post-secondary education 199 200 2. REFLECTIONS ON THE FUTURE PROSPECTS OF THE EVO- LUTION OF THE STRUCTURE OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS A. The evolution of primary education B. The evolution of secondary education 206 209 210 3. THE DECISIVE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL DEMAND IN THE EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES TABLES 222 231

PREFACE In 1965 Mr. Raymond Poignant published a comparative study, entitled "Education in the Common Market Countries", of the organisation and state of development of education in the six countries of the Community and in three industrialised countries: the United States, the United Kingdom and the USSR. Mr. Poignant, at present Director of the International Institute for Educational Planning (UNESCO), compiled the material for this study when he was Chairman of a committee set up by the EEC Institute for University Studies. Since then it has become a reference work for all those who wish to understand the similarities and the diversity of our educational systems; it has been translated into German and English. In the preface to the first edition we expressed the wish that this work of comparative analysis should be pursued and kept up-to-date. This wish is fulfilled in the work we are now introducing, and which was undertaken by Mr. Poignant pursuant to an agreement between the European Cultural Foundation and the International Institute for Educational Planning. It should be emphasised that this is not simply a revised edition of the previous work. The scope of the book has been enlarged, and Japan and Sweden are now included in the list of countries examined; moreover the perspective is different. This new study is in fact one of the studies of the European Cultural Foundation's Plan Europe 2000, a vast undertaking of prospective thought which includes the evolution of educational systems in Europe and training systems as they may well be at the dawn of the 21st century. In the context of Plan Europe 2000 as a whole, the main purpose of Mr. Poignant's work was to define basic structural factors, and to supply the qualitative and quantitative elements on which the prospective studies could be built up. Although prospective thought must not be afraid of being bold, of

x Preface going beyond the horizon of projected trends, of allowing scope to creative imagination, it must not on the other hand disregard the weight of inherited tradition and the inertia of existing structures. By finding a balance between the ideal and the possible futurologists can best throw light on the options open to us and the choices we must make today in order to construct a possible future. We believe that Mr. Poignant's study fulfills this function admirably. The analysis he gives of the state of development of eleven national educational systems shows very clearly the structures and the factors to determine the evolution of these systems. We must not forget, whatever the symbolic fascination a date can have, that the year 2000 is not so very remote. Certainly the acceleration of historical change is not an empty phrase, and radical changes may occur that today seem unlikely or even impossible. Mr. Poignant has experienced this himself, since many sections of his work have had to be revised to bring them into line with the great changes that have taken place in educational systems between 1965 and today. Even though there is every reason to suppose that the process of development will slow down when present reforms have been completed, new perspectives may be openend up before the end of thi8 century. But it was not part of the author's task to imagine these. We believe he was right to be prudent in the predictions of further developments in his general conclusions. His rigorous analysis provides responsible politicians with the means of understanding the field of action open to them. In conclusion we wish to emphasise a phenomenon made evident by Mr. Poignant's synthesis, and which is important for the future of our continent as it becomes unified. The author repeatedly emphasises the structural diversity and the disparity of government policies relating both to reforms and investment. Beyond this diversity, however, the ultimate aims of the reforms converge towards equality of opportunity, mobility between systems, adaptation of training to the needs of society and scientific development, satisfaction of social requirements, lifelong education, etc. It would appear in fact that differences of policy concerning the means used conceal a similarity of desired ends. Only a few decades ago, national educational systems were differentiated by the educational and social philosophies that inspired them. Today these differences are more and more localised at the level of means and structures, but their final human and social purpose is becoming identical May we therefore look forward to the unification of

Preface XI educational policies at a European level as part of the possible future? Without wishing to predict decisions still to be made, we believe that Mr. Poignant's study, by making each system transparently clear to the other systems, will break down the barriers of ignorance and misunderstanding which may continue to divide them. This study therefore is fully in keeping with the aims of Plan Europe 2000 as a whole. Brussels, 1972 Max Kohnstamm President EEC Institute for University Studies

THE AUTHOR A former student of the "Ecole Nationale d' Administration de Paris", Mr. Raymond Poignant graduated from this advanced level Civil Service College in 1949 and was appointed "auditeur" and later "maitre des requetes" of the French Council of State. Apart from his activities at the Council of State, Mr. Poignant is well known in France and abroad for his work during the last ten years on educational development and scientific research. Mr. Poignant was seconded to Unesco at the end of 1963 to serve as a Senior Staff Member of the International Institute for Educational Planning (I.I.E.P.) and as Vice-President of its Council of Consultant Fellows. In February 1969, Mr. Poignant was appointed Director of the I.I.E.P. In that capacity he has carried out this study in accordance with an agreement made between the I.I.E.P and the European Cultural Foundation.