UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA GENDER, PASSAGE CONTENT AND TEXT TYPES IN READING COMPREHENSION AMONG ESL LEARNERS

. UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA GENDER, PASSAGE CONTENT AND TEXT TYPES IN READING COMPREHENSION AMONG ESL LEARNERS FUNG PAU LING T FBMK 2008 19

GENDER, PASSAGE CONTENT AND TEXT TYPES IN READING COMPREHENSION AMONG ESL LEARNERS FUNG PAU LING MASTER OF ARTS UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA AUGUST 2008

GENDER, PASSAGE CONTENT AND TEXT TYPES IN READING COMPREHENSION AMONG ESL LEARNERS By FUNG PAU LING Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia in Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Arts AUGUST 2008

DEDICATION To my beloved father, mother and my siblings ii

Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Masters of Arts GENDER, PASSAGE CONTENT AND TEXT TYPE IN READING COMPREHENSION AMONG ESL LEARNERS By FUNG PAU LING November 2007 Chairman: Faculty: Associate Professor Shameem Rafik-Galea, PhD Modern Languages and Communication This study examined the comprehension performance among ESL learners. The aim was to examine whether gender, passage content and text types affect reading comprehension of upper secondary school students in Malaysia. The study also investigated gender differences of students reading habits. Their favourite reading topics, reading materials and reading comprehension performances (in terms of passage content and text types) were also explored in relation to gender. The samples comprised 162 Upper Six students. Four reading passages of different contents and text types female-oriented narrative text, male-oriented narrative text, female-expository narrative text and maleexpository text, were used. They completed reading comprehension tasks (written recall tasks and multiple-choice questions) after reading each of the passages. Both reading comprehension tasks were analyzed to investigate if there were gender differences in reading comprehension performance with respect to passage content and text types. The written recall tasks were also iii

analyzed in order to seek if there were gender differences in terms of quantity of ideas and types of ideas recalled. The respondents were also asked to complete a questionnaire. The study revealed gender differences in reading habits, favourite reading topics and reading comprehension scores, especially in the written recall tasks. The Chi-square statistics found that reading topics were gender-oriented, whereby certain topics preferred by males and certain topics were mostly chosen by females. Furthermore, there were significant differences in reading comprehension test scores in all the reading passages except for the maleoriented narrative text. There were also significant differences in reading comprehension performance in relation to passage content. However, there was no significant difference in reading comprehension scores in text types. The findings of this study suggested that educators need to select reading materials that are appropriate to both gender groups in terms of passage content to enhance their students reading comprehension performance. In addition, the reading comprehension passages used to evaluate students reading skills should be of different contents to avoid gender bias. The types of reading materials chose by the respondents also revealed that they prefer reading authentic materials. Therefore, educators should use authentic materials in the teaching and learning process in classrooms. iv

Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master Sastera JANTINA, KANDUNGAN PETIKAN DAN JENIS TEKS DALAM KEFAHAMAN MEMBACA DI ANTARA PELAJAR-PELAJAR BELAJAR BAHASA INGGERIS SEBAGAI BAHASA KEDUA By FUNG PAU LING November 2007 Pengerusi: Fakulti: Profesor Madya Shameem Rafik-Galea, PhD Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi Kajian ini dijalankan untuk menyelidik tentang pencapaian kefahaman membaca di antara pelajar-pelajar yang belajar Bahasa Inggeris sebagai bahasa kedua. Tujuan kajian ini adalah meneliti sama ada jantina, kandungan petikan dan jenis teks mempengaruhi kefahaman membaca para pelajar menengah atas di Malaysia. Kajian ini juga menyelidik sama ada sikap membaca di kalangan pelajar berbeza dari segi jantina. Kesukaan kandugan petikan, jenis bahan bacaan dan pencapaian kefahaman membaca juga dikaji dari aspek jantina. Para responden yang terlibat di dalam kajian ini adalah terdiri daripada 162 pelajar Tingkatan Enam Atas. Empat petikan digunakan dalam kajian ini. Mereka dikehendaki melakukan written recall task dan menjawab soalan aneka pilihan setelah membaca setiap empat petikan. Keempat-empat petikan adalah berbeza dari segi kandungan dan jenis texts female-oriented narrative text, maleoriented narrative text, female-expository narrative text and male-expository text. v

Written recall task dan soalan aneka pilihan dianalisa untuk menyelidik sama ada kefahaman membaca dipengaruhi oleh kandungan petikan dan jenis teks. Written recall task juga di analisa untuk menentukan sama ada quantiti dan jenis idea yang ditulis oleh pelajar adalah berbeza dari segi jantina. Akhirnya, para responden juga dikehendaki menjawab satu soal-selidik. Dapatan kajian ini menunjukkan terdapat perbezaan dari aspek jantian dalam sikap membaca, kesukaan tajuk bacaan dan markah kefahaman membaca, terutamanya dalam written recall tasks. Chi-square Statistik juga menunjukkan perbezaan dari segi pemilihan tajuk bacaan yang diminati oleh jantina yang berbeza. Di samping itu, didapati bahawa terdapat perbezaan pencapaian kefahaman membaca dalam semua petikan, kecuali male-oriented narrative. Perbezaan markah juga didapati dalam kandungan petikan yang berbeza. Walau bagaimanapun, didapati tiada perbezaan yang ketara dalam pencapaian kefahaman membaca dari segi jenis teks. Dapatan kajian ini mencadangkan agar para pendidik memilih bahan bacaan yang sesuai untuk kedua-dua jantina dari segi kandungan petikan dan jenis teks untuk mencapai kefahaman bacaan yang maksimum. Kandungan petikan yang digunakan untuk ujian / peperiksaan mestilah sesuai untuk kedua-dua jantina. Para pendidik juga boleh menggunakan bahan autentik dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran berdasarkan dapatan kajian ini. vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the course of obtaining this degree, the following people have helped and supported me in various ways. I could not have reached my goal without them. Therefore, I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to this extraordinary group of people who have kindly rendered me their assistance in one way or another in writing this thesis: My parents, brothers, sisters and all my family members, who have cheered me on and loved me unconditionally. Assoc. Prof. Dr Shameem Rafik-Galea and Prof. Dr. Chan Swee Heng, my supervisory committee. Thank you for your guidance and advice. Dr Bahaman, Dr Jusang and Benjamin, thank you for your guidance, especially with my statistical analysis. Zuhana, Adilah and Puti, who marched along beside me, together we went through all the ups and downs. Lay Tying, a computer wizard, who supported and helped me with my tables and figures whenever I had difficulties in handling them. Ngi Seng, Kuan Heong, Foong Yoong, Pau Pin and all my formal colleagues from SMK St. Patrick, Tawau, who supported and motivated me. vii

I certify that a Thesis Examination Committee has met on 08 August 2008 to conduct the final examination of Fung Pau Ling on her thesis entitled Gender, Passage Content and Text Type among ESL Learners in accordance with the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 and the Constitutuion of the Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U.(A) 106] 15 March 1998. The Committee recommends that the student be awarded the Master of Arts. Members for the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows: Shamala a/p Paramasivam, PhD Jabatan Bahasa Inggeris Fakulti Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairperson) Wong Bee Eng, PhD Prof. Madya Jabatan Bahasa Inggeris Fakulti Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Vijay Kumar Mallan, PhD Jabatan Bahasa Inggeris Fakulti Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Khoo Yew Lie, PhD Prof. Madya Program Pengajian Bahasa Inggeris Pusat Pengajian Bahasa dan Linguistik Fakulti Sains Sosial dan Kemanusiaan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (External Examiner) HASANAH MOHD. GHAZALI, PhD Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date: 30 December 2008 viii

The thesis submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts. The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows: Shameem Rafik-Galea, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Chan Swee Heng, PhD Professor Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) HASANAH MOHD. GHAZALI, PhD Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date: 15 January 2009 ix

DECLARATION I declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or at any other institutions. FUNG PAU LING Date: 14 November 2008 x

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION ABSTRACT ABSTRAK ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS APPROVAL DECLARATION LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES ii iii v vii viii x xiv xv xvii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study 1 1.2 Statement of the problem 6 1.3 Aims and objectives 11 1.4 Research questions 12 1.5 Significance of the study 12 1.6 Scope and limitations of the study 14 1.7 Definition of the key terms 14 1.8 Organization of the thesis 16 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Theoretical perspectives 18 2.1.1 Bottom-up model 19 2.1.2 Top-down model 20 2.1.3 Interactive model 22 2.1.4 Mathewson s (1984) affective model 24 2.1.5 Schema theory 25 2.1.6 Integration of Schema Theory and Matthewson s Affective Model 34 2.2 Reading 36 2.3 Reading comprehension 38 2.4 Reading and gender 40 2.4.1 Gender and Second Language Research 46 2.5 Reading and Schemata 48 2.5.1 Previous research on content schemata 51 2.5.2 Previous research on formal schemata 55 xi

2.6 Passage content 57 2.6.1 Gender-oriented topics 58 2.7 Text types 59 2.7.1 Narrative texts 61 2.7.2 Expository texts 62 2.8 Related local studies 64 2.9 Chapter Summary 69 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction 71 3.2 Research Design 71 3.3 Sampling Design 72 3.3.1 Subjects of the study 72 3.3.2 Sampling Procedures 73 3.4. Instrument 76 3.4.1 Reading passages 76 3.4.2. Questionnaires 80 3.4.3 Task types 81 3.4.3.1 Written recall protocol 82 3.4.3.2 Multiple-choice Questions 82 3.5 Pilot Study 87 3.6 Data collection methods 89 3.7 Data analysis procedures 94 3.7.1 Written recall task 95 3.7.2 Multiple-choice questions 99 3.7.3 Data Coding 99 3.7.4 Data Transformation and Data Analysis 101 3.8 Chapter Summary 104 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Profile of the respondents 105 4.2Findings by Research Questions 107 4.2.1 Reading habits of males and females 107 4.2.2 Gender and reading topics 112 4.2.3 Familiarity with different reading texts 121 4.2.4 Topic Interest of different reading texts 131 4.2.5 Gender difference in gender-oriented passages 139 4.2.6 Gender difference in text types 141 xii

4.2.7 Written Recall Task and Multiple-choice Questions 142 4.2.8 Types of ideas recalled 145 4.3 Chapter Summary 150 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction 151 5.2 Summary 151 5.2.1 Summary of the Results 153 5.3 Conclusions 160 5.4 Implications of the Study 164 5.5 Recommendations for Future Studies 170 REFERENCES 173 APPENDICES 209 BIODATA OF THE STUDENT 236 xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviation Page 1 ERAS (The Elementary Reading Attitude Survey) 42 2 IEA (The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement) 37 3 MASTIC (Malaysian Science and Technology Information Centre) 8 4 MUET (Malaysian University English Test) 5 5 NILAM (Nadi Ilmu Amalan Membaca) 2 6 NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress) 57 7 PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) 37 8 PMR (Penilaian Menengah Rendah) 5 9 SPM (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia) 5 10 TAL (Test of Academic Lexicon) 46 11 TOEFL (Teaching of English to Foreign Learners) 36 xiv

LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Distribution of Form Six students 74 2 Characteristics of the reading passages 76 3 Flesch s reading ease scores 78 4 Reading readability of the narrative texts 78 5 Reading readability of the expository texts 79 6 Cognitive levels of the multiple choice questions 86 7 Number of responses received and selected for the study 95 8 Number and Scores of the Idea Units for the Reading Passages 98 9 Age and Mother Tongue by Gender 106 10 SPM English results by gender 107 11 Reading interest and reading habits by gender 108 12 Chi-square analaysis of selected favourite reading topics among males and females 114 13 Favourite reading topics by gender 116 14 Topic preferences of the male and female respondents 117 15 Comparison of findings for the reading topics and passage content 120 16 Mean scores (M) and standard deviations (SD) for degree of topic familiarity by gender 123 17 Frequency for degree of familiarity with female-oriented narrative by gender 125 xv

18 Frequency for degree of familiarity of male-oriented narrative by gender 126 19 Frequency for degree of familiarity of female-oriented expository by gender 128 20 Frequency for degree familiarity of male-oriented expository by gender 129 21 Mean scores (M) and standard deviations (SD) for degree of topic interest by gender 132 22 Frequency for degree of female-oriented narrative topic interest by gender 133 23 Frequency for degree of male-oriented narrative topic interest by gender 135 24 Frequency for degree of female-oriented expository topic interest by gender 137 25 Frequency for degree of male-oriented expository topic interest by gender 138 26 Independent t-test summary statistics for reading comprehension 140 27 Independent t-test summary statistics for performance of gender-oriented passages by gender 141 28 Independent t-test summary statistics for performance of different text types by gender 142 29 Independent t-test summary statistics for the reading comprehension tasks by gender 143 30 Independent t-test summary statistics for the scores of idea units recalled by gender 146 xvi

LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Bottom-up model 20 2 Top-down model 21 3 Mathewson s Affective model of reading 24 4 Flow chart representing how schemata are thought to operate 34 5 Theoretical framework of the study 35 6 The conceptual model of the study 36 xvii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This chapter presents a discussion of the background to the study, problem statement, research objectives, research questions, purpose statement, significancet of the study and the definitions of key terms. It sets the parameters for the findings by stating the scope and limitations of the study. 1.1 Background of the study Reading is not a habit amongof most Malaysians. Based on a National Literacy Survey carried out in 1996 by the National Library of Malaysia, Malaysians read only two books a year (Reading Profiles of Malaysians 1996, 1998).. Besides, iit was further also reported that the proportion of Comment [U1]: You need to reference this. Formatted: Font color: Auto Malaysians who can read well in the English language is relatively low compared to reading in the national language, Bahasa Malaysia, and other vernacular languages such as MandarinChinese and Tamil. Hence, reading in the English language (second language) is less not a favourable among choice for most Malaysians. The prominence of the English language cannot be sidelined in this era of globalization and information technology. It is the language of global communication. English as a second language has been taught in all primary and secondary schools in Malaysia. It is a compulsory subject in the curricula. However, the English language is seen as a difficult subject by 1

most Malaysian students. Pandian (2000) reported that 80.1% out of 674 university students and 76.2% out of 975 Form Four students in Malaysian public government schools students were reluctant to read materials in English. He points out that Malaysian students read in order to complete academic tasks but not for knowledge or pleasure. In addition, Lee (2004) laments that students do not use have been using the English language for the purpose of daily not to communicatione in their daily activities but for the purpose of to take their examinations. Due to a lack of interest in reading among Malaysian students, the government has tried to overcome this problem by instituting several measures. For example, NILAM (Nadi Ilmu Amalan Membaca) or the Sapphire programme for both the primary and secondary levels was introduced in 1998 in order to inculcate good reading habits amongin the primary and secondary school students; and the literature components for the secondary level were introduced in 2000, with the hope of promoting the reading skill among students. As Cunningham and Stanovich (2003) point out that that reading volume is an independent variable that would determine the acquisition of vocabulary and knowledge of an individual. reading volume is a very powerful predictor of vocabulary and knowledge differences it is actually a potentially separable, independent source of cognitive differences. Since reading is part of Comment [U2]: This is a direct quote. You need to include the page number too. academic literacy, students are expected to possess an ability to cope with the demands of reading in English particularly now with due to the demands of 2

globalization and developments in exposure to the information age environment. Reading, a complex cognitive process, is one of the essential four skills in language acquisition. It is not a passive activity, which is merely decoding printed materials or deriving meanings from written text. Its process is complicated as it involves cognition, and many other factors interact to facilitate or impede the comprehension of texts. Numerous research has been done to study and describe the reading process, especially involving reading comprehension because without reading comprehension, there would be no reading (Rubin, 1993, p.194). RAND Reading Study Group (2002) lists three elements involved in reading, which are the reader, the text and the activity of reading. According to Alderson (2000), it has been a common practice for researchers who study factors affecting reading to divide the variables into two important groups, which are reader variables and text variables. In the nineteen century, it was believed that meaning resided in texts and readers played a passive role in extracting meaning from texts. However, this traditional view changed to that of an interactive view in the late 1970s which places more emphasis on readers as active participants who derive and construct meaning from texts based on their background knowledge. Hence, a text might be interpreted differently by different readers as they have dissimilar experiences and 3

background knowledge because meaning does not reside in the different components of language (Spiro, 1980). Leahey and Harries (1993) suggest Comment [U3]: What do you mean by the different component of language? that the term interactionist could be used when different individuals construct and interpret different meanings from the same stimulus. It is through interaction between reader and text that meanings are made. RAND Reading Study Group (2002) listed knowledge and experiences as other factors that can be categorized as background knowledge of readers. Schema theory has been used extensively to describe the relationship between background knowledge of the readers and reading comprehension. One fundamental assumption of schema theory is that a text does not carry meaning but it provides directions for readers to retrieve stored knowledge in their long term memory to construct meaning (Adams and Collins, 1979). Prior knowledge, background knowledge and schemata are often used interchangeably in second language research (Carrell, 1985, Carrell and Eisterhold, 19838). According to Kalai (2004), prior knowledge and background knowledge are parent terms for many more specific knowledge dimensions such as conceptual knowledge and metacognitive knowledge, subject matter knowledge, content knowledge, strategy knowledge, personal knowledge and self-knowledge are all specialized forms of prior knowledge or background knowledge (p. 24). Alderson (2000) contends that background knowledge includes content, subject matter, world knowledge and cultural knowledge. Researchers such as Baldwin et 4

al. (1985), Leahey and Harries (1993), and Sasaki (2000) strongly support the notion strongly that prior knowledge had a significant effect on reading comprehension. This is because prior knowledge serves as a frame which enables interpretation of meaning. Chandler (1995) suggests that prior knowledge, which is stored in the form of schemata would lead us so strongly to see only what we expect to see (or what we feel we ought to be seeing) that we do not see what is actually there (p.15). He also stresses that gender is a key factor to determine how texts are interpreted. Furthermore, Bboth males and females have different attitudes towards reading in terms of reading habits and reading interest (McKenna and Kear, 1990; McKenna, Kear and Ellsworth, 1995; Maynard, 2002). Therefore, reader is an important nonlinguistic factor which could affect the reading comprehension performance. The importance of reading is reflected in reading comprehension tested in all the public examinations in Malaysia. A study on public examination papers in Malaysia from 2005 to 2007 was carried out by the author. The analysis showed that in the secondary three examination, Penilaian Menengah Rendah (PRMR), the students were tested with two reading passages written in discourse structures such as narrative and expository. Similarly, all the Form five students were tested on reading comprehension in the Secondary Five exit examination, Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM). The students are required to complete 10 questions which consist of limited structured 5

response and open response items before writing a summary of a reading passage. Likewise, the weightage given to reading comprehension in the Malaysian University English Test (MUET) is 45% of the total marks. Therefore, reading comprehension is a crucial test component to assess the language proficiency and understanding of students in Malaysian schools and higher institutions of higher learning. 6