Phonology 1: Handout January 20, 2005 Consonants: articulation and transcription 1 Orientation phonetics [G. Phonetik]: the study of the physical and physiological aspects of human sound production and perception; generally divided into articulatory, acoustic, and auditory branches. articulatory phonetics [G. artikulatorische Phonetik]: the study of how the speech sounds are made ('articulated') by the vocal organs. acoustic phonetics [G. akustische Phonetik]: the study of the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear; usually conducted with the help of computer programs that analyze speech recordings and visualize their properties. auditory phonetics, also perceptual phonetics [G. auditive Phonetik]: the study of the perceptual responses to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve, and brain. From: Denes/Pinson: "The speech chain.", p.5. phonology [G. Phonologie]: the study of the sound systems of languages, and of the general or universal properties displayed by these systems. consonant [G. Konsonant]: speech sound produced with a significant constriction of the airflow in the oral tract. Examples: [p, f, m] vowel [G. Vokal]: speech sound produced without a significant constriction of the airflow in the oral cavity. Examples: [a, o, i] transcription [G. Lautschrift, Transkription, phonetische Umschrift]: A method of writing down the pronunciation of a speech sound, word or utterance in a systematic and consistent way. Example: [ k] for (orthographic) 'think' 2 The vocal tract p 1 Handout January 20 2005 Intro Ling
vocal tract [G. Ansatzrohr, Vokaltrakt]: the whole of the air passage above the larynx; it can be divided into nasal tract (the air passage above the soft palate, within the nose), and oral tract (the mouth and pharyngeal areas). From: Denes/Pinson: "The speech chain.", p.49 larynx [G. Kehlkopf, Larynx]: part of the human anatomy on top of the trachea [G. Luftröhre]; the larynx is most noticeable in the adult male neck, where it 'sticks out' as what is known as the Adam's apple [G. Adamsapfel]. The main non-speech function of the larynx is to close off the trachea and the lungs in the process of swallowing food. The speech-functions of the larynx are taken on by the vocal cords (see separate definition), which are inside of the larynx. These functions include the production of the voicing of sounds, and the production of [h] and of the glottal stop [ ]. pharynx [G. Rachenraum, Pharynx]: the tubular cavity which constitutes the throat above the larynx. [G. Der schlauchförmige Hohlraum, der den Rachen oberhalb des Kehlkopfes ausmacht.] trachea [G. Luftröhre]: 'pipe' that connects the lungs and the larynx; esophagus [G. Speiseröhre]: 'pipe' upward from the stomach; palate: [G. Gaumen] cartilage: [G. Knorpel] Terminology: tracts and cavities p 2 Handout January 20 2005 Intro Ling
vocal tract 5 oral tract nasal tract 4 oral cavity pharyngeal cavity nasal cavity (mouth area) (pharynx, up to X) (inside nose, upward from X) non-linguistic lexicon X: point of contact between soft palate and back wall of pharynx. cavity: (a) hollow or empty space [G. Hohlraum] (b) hole or bad part of a tooth [G. Loch im Zahn] 3 The articulation of [t, n, s, z]: the role of the velum and the larynx From: Denes/ Pinson: "The speech chain.", p.59, 65 place of articulation of [t, n, s, z]: the front part of the tongue (corona) makes a constriction at the alveolar ridge [G. Zahndamm]. manner of articulation and voicing of [t, n, s, z]: oral airflow allowed at alveolar ridge velum allows nasal airflow => EFFECT vocal cords in larynx [t] no (stop) no (oral) airflow stopped in mouth and nose; pressure buildup until [t] is released [n] no (stop) yes (nasal) air comes out of nose; no airflow through mouth [s] yes, with force; no (oral) air is pressed through (fricative) narrow constriction at [z] yes, with force; no (oral) alveolar ridge; -> noise (fricative) do not vibrate (voiceless) vibrate (voiced) do not vibrate (voiceless) vibrate (voiced) p 3 Handout January 20 2005 Intro Ling
4 Places of articulation From: Ladefoged/Maddieson: The sounds of the world's languages, p.12f Active articulator -> Passive articulator -> Names of the sounds -> plosives (oral stops) lower lip tip/blade of the tongue (corona) body of tongue (dorsum) upper lip bilabial upper teeth palatoalveolar region labiodental alveolar ridge dental alveolar palatoalveolar hard palate palatal soft palate (velum) p t k b d fricatives f s x v z nasals m n velar place of articulation: example [p]: it is formed by moving the (active articulator) lower lip to the (passive articulator) upper lip. Likewise for the other sounds that are shown. manner of articulation: plosives: [like [t] above]: the oral closure at the place of articulation is complete; the velum is raised to close off nasal airflow; -> complete obstruction of airflow, pressure build-up, release fricatives: [like [s, z] above]: the oral closure at the place of articulation is incomplete; the velum is raised to close off nasal airflow; -> air is pressed through the incomplete closure at the place of articulation nasals: [like [n] above]: the oral closure at the place of articulation is complete; the velum is not raised, so nasal airflow is allowed -> air flows freely through the nasal cavity. voicing: a voiced stop or fricative is shown below its voiceless counterpart terminology in the table: for example, [p] is a voiceless bilabial plosive p 4 Handout January 20 2005 Intro Ling
5 Additional consonants of English and/or German affricates: [pf], [ts], [t ], [d ] Affricates consist of two parts at the same place of articulation. (The second part of their transcription reflects the place of articulation of the entire affricate). There is nevertheless evidence that these are single sounds (though will not get to it in this class). The manner of articulation of the stop part is as for stops, and the manner of articulation of the fricative part is as for fricatives. There are voiced and voiceless affricates. liquids: [l, r]: [l] is a voiced lateral sound. It is articulated with the tip of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, but one or both sides of the tongue let the air pass through on the side. The opening is fairly wide, so there is no fricative noise. [l] is not a fricative, therefore. [r] is a voiced rhotic sound. If you take 'Intro to phonetics and phonology', you will learn that different [r]-sounds (rhotics) can be distinguished, and that English and German, as well as different German dialects, use different [r] sounds, which are also transcribed differently. Here, however, we will simplify a bit, and use [r] for both English and German. glottal sounds: [h, ] Only the vocal cords are involved in the production of [h] and [ ]. Airflow is usually allowed through the oral tract; however, the position of the articulators in the oral tract is irrelevant, and whether the velum is raised or not is also irrelevant. [h] is produced by spreading apart the vocal cords. [ ] is produced by a closure and following opening of the vocal cords. examples: English: [ ]o-[ ]oh German: [ ]Oma, [ ]Arbeit, Be[ ]ate, Beatrice, The[ ]ater, theatralisch, vocal cords, also vocal folds [G. Stimmbänder]: two muscular folds inside of the larynx. They are attached to particular cartilages [G. Knorpel] of the larynx, and can be positioned, and can also be made stiff or slack. When they vibrate, they produce what we call voicing. In that case, they are held together, and are slack. The air pushing through them from the lungs sets them in vibration. glottis [G. Glottis]: the area between the two vocal cords. From: Péturson/Neppert: Elementarbuch der Phonetik, S.73f Left: glottis during voiceless sounds. Right: glottis during voicing. p 5 Handout January 20 2005 Intro Ling
6 Important classes of consonants Obstruents [produced with a build-up of air-pressure in the oral cavity; often 2 variants: plosives (oral stops) [p, b,...] voiced and voiceless] fricatives [f, v,...] affricates [pf, t,...] Sonorants [produced with no build-up of air pressure in the oral cavity; normally voiced] nasals (nasal stops) [m, n, ] liquids [l, r] also sonorant are: glides [j, w] (see next session) vowels [a, e,...] (see next session) Consonants of English, not found in German: [, ]; rare in German: [d ] Consonants of German, not found in English: [, x, pf, ts] Problem set, due Jan. 25, 2005, at the usual times/places 1. For each of the following sounds, specify the active and the passive articulator: [k], [m], [d], [ ], [x], [ ] 2. For each of the following sounds, describe the manner of articulation (this does not include voicing): Is the velum raised or not? Is the oral constriction complete? Is there airflow through the mouth or through the nose or does the airflow completely stop for a short time? [k], [m], [x] 3. a. For each of the following sounds, write down whether they are voiced or voiceless. [g], [m], [n], [ ], [ ], [s], [z], [x], [ ] b. What happens during voicing in the larynx? (1 sentence is enough, if it is correct.) 4. Name the following sounds: Example: [d] is a voiced alveolar plosive. Now you: [s], [t ], [g], [l], [n] 5. Transcribe the consonants in the pronunciation (not spelling!) of the following English words (you may write '_' for where a vowel is pronounced; look up the pronunciation in a dictionary if you are not sure; however, you must use the transcription symbols we are using here, in case your dictionary uses different ones): Example: sing [s_ ] Now you: knife, king, judge, chocolate, psychology Suggested Reading: Ladefoged, Peter. 2001. A Course in Phonetics: Thomson Learning. Australia Canada Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States: Heinle & Heinle, chapt. 1 3. p 6 Handout January 20 2005 Intro Ling