Unit 13 Assessment in Language Teaching Welcome
Teaching Objectives 1. Assessment purposes 2. Assessment methods 3. Assessment criteria 4. Assessment principles 5. Testing in language assessment 2
I. Assessment purposes To put it simply, assessment in ELT means to discover what the learners know and can do at a certain stage of the learning process. Before we look at assessment in detail, let s discuss why assessment is necessary. With different assessment purposes in mind, we may adopt different assessment methods. 3
Task 1 What do you think are the purposes of assessment? The chart below has twelve possible purposes of assessment. Do you agree with them? If yes, choose the six items that you think are the most important purposes of assessment. Then add one or two assessment purposes that you think apply to an ELT classroom. 4
Possible answers: 1.To discover learners weaknesses N 2.To discover learners achievements Y 3.To evaluate the existing curriculum Y 4.To check upon teachers performance Y 5.To motivate learners Y 5
6.To provide an incentive for learning 7.To provide the basis for further planning of teaching: what to teach next Y 8.To qualify students 9.To provide the basis for correction 10.To provide criteria to qualify for higher level studies Y 11.To provide learners with a sense of accomplishment Y 12. To foster the ability to learn. Y Y Y N 6
A close study on the assessment purposes will make it clear that all the people involved in education have some reasons to consider assessment necessary. They are administrators, teachers, parents and students. 7
Administrators Administrators provide money and personnel for education. They need to know whether the programmes they have planned are working well. 8
The only way to do this is to discover how well the pupils are doing with their courses. If assessment results are different from what they have expected, they need to re-plan the programmes so that better accomplishment can be achieved later. 9
Teachers Teachers put the administrators plans into practice. In the continuum of learning, teachers need to know what has been done and what needs to be done next; 10
what the pupils already know or can do and what they do not know or cannot do yet. If the programme is well planned, it pretty much depends on the teachers performance whether the programme eventually leads to success. 11
Parents Nobody is more anxious than parents to know how their children are doing in school. Unable to watch their kids in the class, parents value the feedback about their children s performance from the teachers and the school. 12
Students Finally, students need to know what they ve accomplished, be aware of what they need to work on next, and build up their confidence and satisfaction from what they have achieved. 13
It should be noted that both positive and negative assessment should be made available to the learner, as honestly as possible. It is essential, however, for such assessments to be given in an atmosphere of support and warm solidarity, so that learners feel that the teachers motive is honestly to promote and encourage their learning, not to put them down. 14
The problem in negative assessment is often not the assessment itself, but rather the accompanying implications of aggression on the side of the assessor and humilia tion on the side of the assessed (Ur, 1996). 15
More often than not, the problems with assessment are not with its purposes but with the aspects of its nature, namely, methods, criteria, principles and feedback, etc. Most of the time; in most cases 16
II. Assessment methods Assessment is often associated with testing, so speaking of assessment methods, many teachers immediately think of tests. 17
However, there is an important difference between assessment and testing: Assessment is usually based on information collected about the learners current situation. Testing is only one of the different ways to collect information. 18
Testing is a single-occasion, onedimensional, timed exercise, usually in multiple choice or short-answer form. Testing is formal, and is often standardized, which means that everyone takes the test under the same conditions. 19
In other words, everyone is given the same procedures for administering and scoring, the same test materials and items, and the same norms against which they are compared. 20
Assessment is a broader term, implies evaluation based on a collection of information about what students know and can do, involves many ways and methods of information gathering, formal and informal, at different times and in different contexts. 21
Testing is part of assessment, but it is only one means of gathering information about a student. The focus in testing is on finding the norm. Assessment is broader than testing. The teacher is looking at progress over time in a variety of contexts. 22
Task 2 Work in pairs and answer the following question: Besides testing, what are the other methods that can be used to gather information about the knowledge and performance of language learners? Please give examples if possible. When you are ready, join another pair and compare your ideas. 23
--To assess accurately, to record, and to give feedback on what the students are accomplishing and where they are on the learning continuum, we need to gather as much information as possible before making decisions about the students. Besides, the information we gather should be accurate and reliable. 24
--Besides testing, which can be formal or informal, there are many other ways to gather information, such as teacher s assessment, continuous assessment, students self-assessment, and portfolios (The materials collected in such a case, especially when representative of a person's work.) 25
1. Teachers assessment Research shows that the teacher s knowledge of children and their students and weak nesses is more accurate and sound than testing (Law and Eckes, 1995:44). 26
Very often the teacher s subjective estimate of the learners overall performance or achievement can be quite accurate and fair. The teacher can get information by observing the stu dents in class and by looking at their work. 27
2. Continuous assessment The final grade given to the student is not his or her mark on the final exam paper; rather, it is some kind of combination of the grades the learner has received for various assignments during the course. 28
It can also include the grades that the teacher has given for students performance or participation in the class activities. It could also be a written report rather than just a grade. 29
3. Self-assessment The students themselves are given the chance to evaluate their own performance, using clear criteria and weighting systems agreed on beforehand. Kohonen (1999) asserts that students are able to make quite accurate assessments of their own achievements. 30
4. Portfolios Portfolios are collections of assignments and projects that students have done over a long period of time. These materials are usually put in a file kept by the students or the teacher. The portfolios provide the basis for evaluation. 31
III. Assessment criteria It is agreed that assessment means to discover how well learners know things or can do things. But well is often comparatively well, not absolutely well. So the question is what criteria assessment should be based on. How well is well enough? 32
Depending on different assessment purposes and the stage at which the assessment is made, assessment should be made according to different criteria or references. 33
The terms criterion-referenced and norm-referenced are originally used to refer to two types of tests. However, recently they have been extended to refer to assessment in general. A third type of assessment is known as individualreferenced assessment. 34
1.Criterion-referenced assessment Criterion-referenced language assessment is based on a fixed standard or a set criterion. The national or local educational authority may have this standard or criterion. 35
A school or several schools in a district may have their standard or set criterion for whatever purposes they might have. A fixed standard is usually the ultimate goal which the students are expected to achieve at the end of the course. 36
2.Norm-referenced assessment Norm-referenced assessment is designed to measure how the performance of a particular student or group of students compares with the performance of another student or group of students whose scores are given as the norm. 37
A student s achievement is therefore interpreted with reference to the achievement of other students or groups of students, rather than to an agreed criterion. 38
3.Individual-referenced assessment Individual-referenced assessment is based on how well the learner is performing relative to his or her own previous performance, or relative to an estimate of his or her individual ability. 39
For example, if a student could only say a few words in English after a few months of the course, and now after another month s study, he is able to speak with some fluency (although there is some inaccuracy), we can surely say he has made great progress. 40
Task 4 What are the possible advantages and disadvantages of different assessments based on different criteria? Discuss the question in groups of four and note down your ideas in the chart below. 41
Criterion referenced Advantages Objective standard of ability level; Disadvantage Difficult to design, especially for classroom teachers. 42
Norm-referenced Maximize the distinction among individuals in a given group; Difficult to decide the norms. Individual-referenced Make students aware of their progress; Encourage students; Lack of comparison among students. 43
IV. Assessment principles Generally speaking, assessment should: assess authentic use of language in reading, writing, speaking, and listening; assess literacy (The condition or quality of being literate, especially the ability to read and write and language in a variety of contexts; 44
assess the environment, the instruction, and the students; assess processes as well as products; analyse patterns of errors in language and literacy; 45
be based on normal developmental patterns and behaviour in language and literacy acquisition; clarify and use standards when assessing reading, writing, and content knowledge: 46
involve students and parents, as well as other personnel such as the ESL or main stream teacher, in the assessment process; be an ongoing part of every day. (Law and Eckes, 1995) 47
V. Testing in assessment 5.1The role of testing in the classroom (Rebecca M. Valette. 1977) We have said that testing does not equate with assessment, but testing is, at least now, the most widely used method to collect information for the purpose of assessment. So it is desirable and necessary for teachers to familiarise themselves with testing techniques. 48
Classroom testing is the topic of language teaching. Although the teacher is primarily concerned with teaching rather than testing, classroom tests play three important roles in the second-language program: they define course objectives, they stimulate student progress, and they evaluate class achievement. 49
5.1.1 Stimulating student progress As much as possible, the time given over to classroom testing should provide a rewarding experience. 50
The test should furnish an opportunity for the students to show how well they can handle specific elements of the target language; gone are the days when the teacher designed a test to point up the students ignorance or lack of application. 51
Tests should be distinctly announced in advance to permit the students to prepare adequately. If the students themselves are expected to demonstrate their abilities, it is only proper that they should learn as soon as possible after the test how well they did. 52
The test best fulfills its function as a part of the learning process if correct performance is immediately confirmed and errors are pointed out. 53
The aim of the language course is the development of communication skills. Communication is a meaningful activity, and the test items should, as much as possible, be presented in a meaningful situational context. 54
Sentences that switch from one language to another in midstream and groups of items in which the topic changes from sentence to sentence are to be avoided. The language test is difficult enough without placing additional comprehension obstacles in the students path. 55
5.1.2 Evaluating class achievement Through frequent testing, the teacher can determine which aspects of the program are presenting difficulties for individual students and for the class as a whole. 56
By analyzing the mistakes made on a given test, or more precisely on given items of that test, the teacher can determine where to concentrate extra class drill and how best to assist each student. 57
At the same time, testing enables the teacher to discover whether the class objectives are being met. Through tests the teacher can evaluate the effectiveness of a new teaching method, of a different approach to a difficult pattern, or of new materials. 58
The most familiar role of the classroom test is to furnish an objective evaluation of each student s progress: his or her attainment of course objectives and his or her performance in relation to that of the rest of the class. 59
5.2 TYPES OF TESTS There are four basic types of language tests: aptitude tests, progress tests, achievement tests, and proficiency tests. 60
5.2.1 The aptitude test The aptitude test is conceived as a prognostic measure that indicates whether a student is likely to learn a second language readily. It is generally given before the student begins language study, and may be used to select students for a language course or to place students in sections appropriate to their ability. 61
5.2.2 The progress test The progress test measures how much the student has learned in a specific course of instruction. The tests that the classroom teacher prepares for administration at the end of a unit or end of a semester are progress tests. 62
Their format reflects the various components of the curriculum. This handbook is written specifically to help teachers improve their progress tests and evaluate those which commercial publishers distribute to accompany their materials. 63
5.2.3 The achievement test The achievement test is similar to the progress test in that it measures how much the student has learned in the course of second-language instruction. However, achievement tests are usually not built around one set of teaching materials hut are designed for use with students from a variety of different schools and programs. 64
For example, the afternoon tests of the College Board battery are achievement tests. Dictations given over unfamiliar material may also he considered achievement tests when they are used to compare students across different programs. 65
5.2.4 The proficiency test The proficiency test also measures what students have learned, but the aim of the proficiency test is to determine whether this language ability corresponds to specific language requirements. For example, placement tests are proficiency tests: is the student proficient enough to enter Course 301, or would it be better to place him or her in Course 251? 66
The reading-knowledge tests for doctoral candidates are also proficiency tests: is the student able to read professional literature in another language with a specific level (such as 90 percent) of accuracy? 67
The Foreign Service Institute has developed a set of proficiency tests that indicate to what degree a candidate can function in the foreign language: can the candidate only carry out polite exchanges in the language, or can he or she handle technical discussions? 68
The proficiency tests, in fact, usually report student language ability on a continuum that reflects a predetermined set of categories. 69
We have said that testing does not equate with assessment, but testing is, at least now, the most widely used method to collect information for the purpose of assessment. So it is desirable and necessary for teachers to familiarise themselves with testing techniques. 70
5.3 TYPES OF TEST ITEMS The questions on a test are called items. The word item is preferred because it does not imply the interrogative form. The most common types of items used in language classes are multiplechoice items, short answer items, and communication items. 71
5.3.1 Multiple-choice items Multiple-choice test items are designed to elicit( 引出 )specific responses from the students. Since there is only one right answer (or in some rare cases more than one, or even none), the scorer can very rapidly mark an item as correct or incorrect. 72
More important, when a group of scorers is reading the same test paper, each of them arrives at the same score. (This agreement is called scorer reliability.) 73
The reliability of multiple-choice items and the increased use of electronic computers have led to widespread acceptance of the machine-scored answer sheet. 74
Such multiple-choice tests have proliferated throughout the United States and have been applied to a broad range of subject matter. The items present the students with four or five options from which they must select the correct answer. 75
Although the scorer reliability of these machinescored multiple-choice tests is almost perfect, the validity of each test or each section of the test must be determined separately. Just because a test is objective, it is not automatically a good test. 76
Before using any standardized objective test, the teacher should carefully go over the specifications to determine whether they correspond to his or her own reasons for giving the test. 77
5.3.la THE ITEM In a multiple-choice item, the stem is the initial part: either a partial sentence to be completed, a question, or several statements leading to a question or incomplete phrase. The choices from which students must select their answers are known as options, responses, or alternatives. 78
One response, the key, is distinctly correct or more suitable than the others. Incorrect responses are called distractors and should be so worded that they seem attractive to the uninformed or poorly informed student. If a distractor is so obviously wrong that it is never selected, it plays no useful role in the item and should be eliminated or replaced by a new alternative. 79
5.3.1b The PASSAGE ITEMS Passage items, as the name suggests, are two or more items that refer to a single passage : a paragraph, a poem, a conversation, or a visual. The passage may be printed in the test booklet, recorded and played over a phonograph or tape recorder, or projected on a screen. 80
The items that accompany a linguistic passage evaluate how well the students understand what they have just read or heard. Effective passage items should be so constructed that an intelligent native speaker could not arrive at the correct answer without having read or heard the passage. 81
In other words, students should not be able to answer passage items merely with common sense and a knowledge of the target language. 82
5.3.l DISCRETE ITEMS Discrete items stand alone. The most common discrete items are utterly independent of each other, and their order on a given test could be transposed without changing their effectiveness. 83
To obtain greater economy in test administration, a series of discrete items employing identical options could be presented as a group. Here is an example in English, where the stem is understood. 84
Indicate whether the following statements refer to past events or to present events. Mark your answer sheet as follows: A = past, B present. 1. They sing beautifully. 2. We came together. 3. You went with my car. 85
Correct responses: B, A, A Discrete language items may also be developed around visual stimuli: drawings, a sequence of clock faces, overhead transparencies, flash cards, etc. 86
5.3.2 Short-answer objective items An objective test item is any item for which there is a single predictable correct answer. Whereas the multiple-choice item format is most often selected for standardized tests, the classroom teacher typically makes heavy use of short-answer items. 87
These items may require one-word answers, such as brief responses to questions (oral or written), or the filling in of missing elements. At other times, several words or full sentences may be required. 88
Like the multiple-choice items, the shortanswer items may be classified as passage items, for example, questions on a reading) or discrete items. The stimulus may be printed, spoken, visual, or a combination of these presentations. 89
In order to assure the objective nature of short-answer items, the teacher must prepare a scoring system in advance. In a spoken vocabulary test, is credit given for a properly identified expression poorly pronounced? Or is the student also scored on pronunciation? 90
In a written test of verb usage, is credit given for a verb in the appropriate tense even if there is a minor misspelling? Is credit given for the sentence if a nonessential element of the sentence is misspelled? Where possible, the students should be told exactly how their performance is to be evaluated. 91
5.3.3 Communication items In tests of communicative competence, it is usually impossible to predict precisely how students will respond, for communication allows and indeed encourages creativity on the part of the students 92
. Although one can develop objective items to evaluate listening and reading comprehension, tests of oral and written selfexpression elicit free responses that must be scored subjectively. 93
Communication items are not, therefore, as objective as multiple-choice or shortanswer items. However, through the development of an appropriate scoring procedure, it is possible to evaluate student performance with a good degree of objectivity. 94
If communication is one of the major goals of the foreign language course, teachers must give the students the opportunity to demonstrate their ability to communicate, even if such tests are not totally objective. 95
5.4 GENERAL TESTING TERMINOLOGY The literature on language testing contains terms often unfamiliar to the classroom teacher. The most important of these terms, frequently used in contrasting pairs, will be defined and discussed in this section. 96
1.4.1 Test and quiz Both tests and quizzes play a role in the language classroom. The distinction between test and quiz is one of dimension and purpose rather than of item content.the test is announced in advance and covers a specific unit of instruction, be it part of a lesson or several lessons. In reviewing for a test, students pull together the work of several class periods. 97
Classroom tests may be given every two or three weeks in some cases, every week. Such tests may be constructed to last the entire class period; in this case, optimum (Most favorable or advantageous; best.) 98
learning efficiency requires the teacher to return and discuss the corrected test as soon as the class meets again. Some teachers prefer preparing a shorter test so that items may be reviewed rapidly at the end of the same class period. 99
The essence of the quiz is brevity. In contrast to the test, it may be un announced. Frequent quizzes encourage students to devote time regularly to their language study. Moreover, the quiz enables the teacher to acquaint students with types of items that will subsequently he used in tests. 100
Students may be told to expect a quiz every period, although on some days the quiz might be omitted. A written or oral quiz may be given at the end of the period (to highlight work done in class). 101
A regular brief laboratory quiz at the end of the laboratory session can be effective in maintaining student attention during the period. 102
Individual grades on daily quizzes are not of primary importance. The value of the quiz lies in its positive effect on student learning and the practice it affords in the art of test taking; such practice helps reduce the negative element of nervousness often affecting performance on longer tests. 103
The value of the test, on the other hand, lies in the completeness with which it examines the material under study. The relative weight given certain elements or skills should therefore accurately reflect the class objectives. 104
A subjective item is one that does not have a single right answer. A short composition or an impromptu interview may be scored in different ways by different teachers, and even by the same teacher scoring the answer twice under different circumstances 105
. Test questions where students may give a variety of responses, each somewhat different from the other, are called subjective items. 106
5.4.2 Objective and subjective test items The terms objective and subjective when applied to test items refer to the manner in which the item is graded. An objective item is one for which there is a specific correct response; 107
therefore, whether the item is scored by one teacher or another, whether it is scored today or last week, it is always scored the same way. Multiple-choice items are objective items. Fill-inthe-blank and short-answer questions are also objective items. 108
A subjective item is one that does not have a single right answer. A short composition or an impromptu interview may be scored in different ways by different teachers, and even by the same teacher scoring the answer twice under different circumstances. 109
Test questions where students may give a variety of responses, each somewhat different from the other, are called subjective items. 110
5.4.3 Speed and power tests On a speed test, the student works against time. A typical speed test is the typing test in which the student tries to improve his or her rate of words per minute. 111
A language test that is so long the students are unable to finish within the time allotted and that contains items of more or less equal difficulty throughout the test would be considered a speed test. 112
For instance, the reading and translation test given for doctoral candidates is frequently a speed test: the candidates must finish the translation within a specific time limit. 113
On a power test, the student is given sufficient time to finish the test. Some students may not answer all the questions, but this is because they are unable to do so, not because they were rushed. Most classroom tests are power tests: the length has been set to permit all students to complete the test. 114
5.4.4 Formative and summative evaluation Benjamin Bloom has developed the concept of formative and summative evaluation. The formative test is given during the course of instruction; its purpose is to show which aspects of the chapter the student has mastered and where remedial work is necessary. The formative test is usually graded. 115
The summative test, on the other hand, is usually given at the end of a marking period and measures the sum total of the material covered. On this type of a test, students are usually ranked and graded. 116
5.4.5 Norm-referenced and criterion-referenced tests The norm-referenced test compares a student s performance against the performance of other students. On the classroom test, the student s performance is often graded on the curve. 117
On a standardized test, the student s performance is compared to that of other students who have completed a similar language course, and the results are expressed in terms of percentile rankings. (The summative test is a type of normreferenced test.) 118
The criterion-referenced test indicates whether the student has met pre determined objectives or criteria. Has the student mastered the rhythm and accent of the target language? Can the student rewrite a paragraph from the present tense into the past tense? 119
The student s performance is typically graded on a pass-fail basis and the opportunity for retesting is provided. (The formative test is a type of criterion-referenced test.) 120
The test given at the end of a unit is a criterion-referenced test based on specific material. In broader terms, the criterion-referenced test may be conceived as a placement or proficiency test. According to the student s scores on the test, he or she is placed on a specific course or given a rating that indicates, for example, his or her speaking ability. 121
5.4.6 Grading and evaluation In the traditional school system, students are graded. This concern for grades and ranks parallels the use of norm-referenced tests. The current trend in some schools is to replace grading with evaluation 122
: the student is told what he or she has learned with reference to the subject matter rather than in comparison with others in the class. Criterion-referenced tests are usually used in the evaluation of student progress. 123
It is obvious, however, that the scores on criterion-referenced measures may also be interpreted in such a way as to rank students. Although the teacher focuses on evaluation procedures, the students themselves may translate relative progress into grades. 124
In an individualized program where students may progress at their own rate, both Susie and Mary may be doing B-level work, hut if Susie has completed seven chapters and Mary has completed only four, Susie s performance for the year will be superior to Mary s. 125
5.4.7 Testing linguistic competence and communicative competence The test of linguistic competence determines the breadth and accuracy of the student s command of linguistic elements: pronunciation, vocabulary, and structures. Tests of linguistic competence are equated with discrete-point tests, in that the student is evaluated on specific aspects of the second language. 126
The test of communicative competence focuses on the student s ability to communicate in specific situations. The student is scored, not on linguistic accuracy, but on his or her ability to produce or comprehend a message. 127
In this context, linguistic errors are counted only if they interfere with communication. Tests of communicative competence may be considered global language tests, even though the latter category also includes indirect measures of Language proficiency, such as dictations. 128
1.4.8 Abstract vs. situational context Most standardized and commercial classroom tests present items in an abstract context: the students are instructed, for instance, to select or provide the appropriate forms of suggested adjectives 129
. Although full sentences are often used, these sentences when read in sequence have little relationship to each other. Students can perform well on such tests without understanding the meaning of the individual sentences. 130
With the growing emphasis on the importance of meaning in foreign language acquisition, teachers are beginning to realize the necessity of placing test items into a situational context. 131
Although the situational test may include the same elements as the abstract test, the former is more effective as a learning tool. Here is an example: Abstract context: Complete the sentences with the past tense form of the verb in parentheses. 132
Abstract context: Complete the sentences with the past tense form of the verb in parentheses. 1. I (buy) a record yesterday. 2. John s parents (write) him a postcard from New York. 3. We (pay) the paperboy two dollars. 133
Correct responses: bought, wrote, paid Situational context: Richard is out of luck! Whenever he asks his friends to do something, he finds out that they have already done so. Complete the answers with the past tense form of the underlined verb. 134
1. Richard: Do you want to go to the movies? Sally: Sorry, I to the movies last night. 2. Richard: Do you want to see Jaws with me? Paul: I Jaws last week. 3. Richard: Do you want to do your math homework at my house? Mary: I my math this morning. Correct responses: went, saw, did 135
5.4.9 Pure vs. hybrid test items On a pure test item, the student uses only one skill. In a hybrid test item, two or more skills are used. For example, in a listening comprehension test, students might be asked to listen to a short conversation 136
. If they then hear a series of true-false questions about the conversation and mark true or false on an answer sheet, this test would be considered a pure test 137
. How ever, if they hear questions about the conversation and select the appro priate answer from among three printed options, this test would be a hybrid test, for it involves both the skill of listening and the skill of reading. 138
In the 1960s language test writers tried to produce pure tests as far as possible. Dictations, for example, were often discarded because they were hybrid forms, mixing listening and writing. 139
With the present interest in communication and global testing, there is a return to certain hybrid test forms. It is now felt that since speakers of the second language naturally tend to use their language across two or more skills, hybrid test items are consequently valid measures of the students mastery of that second language. 140
The hybrid test may introduce the problem of double jeopardy. For instance, the student may be able to read a passage with understanding but may receive a low grade on the test because of errors made in writing out answers to comprehension questions. In this example, the poor command of writing has jeopardized what would have been a strong reading grade. 141
5.4.11 Pre-testing and post-testing The pretest is given prior to teaching a course or a unit of instruction. It is similar in form and content to the posttest that is given at the end of the course or the unit. The scores on the pretest form a baseline against which one can measure the progress that students have made during the course. 142
The pretest is usually not given in beginning courses, unless there are some students who have had prior language experience (language spoken at home, travel or residence abroad, etc.). 143
In intermediate or advanced courses, however, the pretest helps the teacher ascertain the students level at the beginning of the course. It maybe that certain students are so qualified that they may waive the course entirely or proceed to a higher course in the sequence. 144
In research projects, a comparison of pretest and posttest scores enables the teacher to determine how much the students have learned iii one class as opposed to another. 145
Test items can be designed in various formats:(in the textbook) 1.Questions & answers 2.True or false questions 3.Multiple-choice questions 4.Gap-filling or completion 5.Matching questions 6.Dictation 146
7.Transformation 8.Translation 9.Essay writing 10.Interview 147
VI. Conclusion Assessment can be done in many ways. Testing is only one of them. Varying assess ment methods according to assessment purposes and contexts helps to make assess ment fairer and more reliable. Whatever methods or formats are used, assessment must always follow a set of principles which guarantee assessment validity and reliability. 148
VII. Assignments 1.Review the unit & do all the exercises. 2.Read Appendix II of TLEBC. 149
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