USING AN ADAPTED VERSION OF RECIPROCAL TEACHING TO TEACH READING COMPREHENSION TO LOW ENGLISH PROFICIENCY LEARNERS

USING AN ADAPTED VERSION OF RECIPROCAL TEACHING TO TEACH READING COMPREHENSION TO LOW ENGLISH PROFICIENCY LEARNERS EUPHRASIA LEE CHIN YAN UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

iv DEDICATION In loving memory of my beloved father, Tan Sri Datuk Amar Lee Hun Hoe, former Chief Justice of Borneo

v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people I would like to thank for their assistance in writing this project paper. There are a few who I would like to specifically thank here. I appreciated very much the guidance and direction given to me from inception to conclusion by my supervisors, PM Khairi Izwan Abdullah and Dr. Noor Abidah Mohd Omar. Both have been invaluable and tireless reviewers in helping to design my project paper and in assisting me with making meaning of the results. I would also like to thank my friends, Valerie Chan, Jacqueline Sim, Shirley Su and Kho Sui Joo who were always there when I needed them. For the long nights that we had spent in doing many of our projects, I shall recall them with fond memories. Valerie has been a wonderful partner in all the assignments that we had done together. Jacqueline, thank you for letting us use your place for our night sessions. Shirley, thank you for your help in the statistics. A special thanks to my students who participated in this research study. To my former principal, Su Hiong Ai, thank you for being so understanding and supportive.

vi ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to examine whether the adaptations made to reciprocal teaching would be more effective than the traditional approach of pre, while and post reading activities when teaching reading comprehension. The study measured and compared the performance of two groups of Form Four students at a secondary school in Kuching, Sarawak. The respondents were given pre and post-tests on comprehension passages to find out whether there was an improvement in the reading comprehension of low English proficiency learners after being taught an adapted version of reciprocal teaching. The other pre and post-test on cloze passages was to find out whether there was an improvement in the general English language proficiency after being taught the adapted version of reciprocal teaching. In both cases, there was some improvement in the mean scores but the increase in scores was not statistically significant. Participants were also asked to write comments on student feedback forms. Comments from the participants were positive and encouraging. The results of the study suggest that the adapted version of reciprocal teaching can be used as a teaching strategy to improve reading comprehension, as there was some improvement in the mean score in the post-tests. Besides that, the students reported that the adapted version of reciprocal teaching gave confidence and the opportunity to cooperate with each other when working on the reading passages.

vii ABSTRAK Tujuan kajian ini ialah untuk menelitikan sama ada adaptasi yang dibuat terhadap reciprocal teaching adalah berkesan apabila dibandingkan dengan cara tradisional untuk mengajar kefahaman. Kajian ini mengukur dan membandingkan prestasi dua kumpulan pelajar Tingkatan Empat di sebuah sekolah menengah di Kuching, Sarawak. Responden diberi pra-ujian dan pos-ujian mengenai kefahaman petikan untuk menentukan sama ada terdapat kemajuan dalam kefahaman petikan di kalangan pelajar yang kurang fasih dalam Bahasa Inggeris selepas diajar dengan pendekatan reciprocal teaching yang diubahsuaikan. Pra-ujian dan pos-ujian yang satu lagi mengenai cloze passage adalah untuk menentukan sama ada terdapat kemajuan dalam kefasihan Bahasa Inggeris secara keseluruhan selepas diajar dengan pendekatan reciprocal teaching yang diubahsuaikan. Dalam kedua-dua kes itu, terdapat peningkatan skor min untuk pos-ujiannya. Akan tetapi, peningkatan itu didapati tidak signifikan. Responden juga diminta untuk memberi komen dengan menggunakan borang maklum balas. Komen daripada responden menyokong cadangan bahawa reciprocal teaching yang diubahsuaikan boleh digunakan satu strategi pengajaran untuk meningkatkan penguasaan kefahaman kerana terdapat penokokan skor min dalam pos-ujian. Selain daripada itu, responden berpendapat bahawa reciprocal teaching yang diubahsuaikan itu memberi mereka peluang untuk bekerjasama antara satu sama lain dan keyakinan semasa membuat kefahaman.

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER TITLE PAGE DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF ABBREVIATION LIST OF APPENDICES ii iii iv v vi vii x xi xii 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Background of the Study 3 1.3 Statement of Problem 5 1.4 Purpose of the Study 7 1.5 Objectives of the study 7 1.6 Research Questions and Hypotheses 8 1.7 Scope of the study 8 1.8 Definitions of terms 10 1.9 Significance of the Study 11

ix 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 13 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 Defining Reading Comprehension 14 2.3 Processes Involved in Reading Comprehension 16 2.4 Problems faced by students with reading tasks 19 2.4.1 Unfamiliar Vocabulary 18 2.4.2 Lack of Prior Knowledge 20 2.5 Approaches to teaching reading comprehension 21 2.6 Reciprocal Teaching 24 2.7 Rationale for Using Adapted Version of 29 Reciprocal Teaching 2.8 Measurement of reading comprehension 32 2.9 Use of cloze passage to determine English Language 33 Proficiency 2.10 Conclusion 35 3 METHODOLOGY 36 3.1 Introduction 36 3.2 Setting, Population & Subject 36 3.3 Research Design 37 3.3.1 Instruments 37 3.4 Research Procedure 39 3.5 Data analysis 40 3.6 Conclusion 43

x 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 44 4.1 Introduction 44 4.2 Research Question 1 43 4.3 Research Question 2 47 4.4 Students reactions to an adapted version of 49 reciprocal teaching 4.5 Discussion 52 4.6 Conclusion 53 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 54 5.1 Introduction 54 5.2 Summary and Discussion 54 5.3 Conclusions 55 5.4 Limitations 56 5.4.1 A small sample size 57 5.4.2 Time constraints 57 5.4.3 Instructional Effectiveness 57 5.5 Pedagogical Implications 58 5.6 Recommendations 59 REFERENCES 61 Appendices A-Q 66

xi LIST OF TABLES TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE 4.1 Pre and Post-test Reading Comprehension 45 4.2 Pre and Post-test Cloze Text Scores 47 4.3 Report on the findings of the comprehension 50 passage 4.4 Report on the findings on the activities of the 50 comprehension passage

xii LIST OF ABBREVIATION LEP RT L2 L1 Low English Proficiency Reciprocal Teaching Second Language First language

xiii LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX TITLE PAGE A Pre-test and Post-test for comprehension passages 66 B Pre-test and Post-test for cloze passages 74 C Answer to pre and post-test for comprehension 77 passages D Answer to pre and post-test for cloze passages 79 E Students Feedback Form 80 F Script for Reciprocal Teaching Introduction and Training 81 G Reciprocal Teaching- How it works 82 H Reciprocal Teaching Roles for students 83 I Lesson 1 on Reciprocal Teaching 84 J Lesson 2 on Reciprocal Teaching 86 K Lesson 3 on Reciprocal Teaching 88 L Comprehension passage on lesson 3 92 M Answer to comprehension passage 95 N Marking scheme on summary 96 O T-test results for comprehension passage 97 P T-test results for cloze passage 99 Q Responses from students feedback forms 101

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction Learning to read is one of the greatest accomplishments in childhood because it is the foundation for learning and academic achievements (Paris, 2005). In the world today, the ability to read English fluently will be useful particularly if one needs to obtain information from internationally-based references and materials. As students gain wider access to electronic data bases through the Internet, it is reading, more than any of the other English language skills, that offers access to information. The ability to read has long been considered by literate societies to be one of the basic building blocks affecting commercial exchange, cultural advancement and personal independence. High levels of literacy are even more important as we move through the 21 st century. In fact, we are now exposed to more information that requires reading and synthesizing. Now we depend on our reading abilities in every area of our life: our careers, assembling household items as well as being an informed citizen. The demands on students to read, comprehend and evaluate complex information have never been greater. Jobs in technology, information and management dominate the workplace, leaving few opportunities for the uneducated. Students in schools today require a strong foundation of literacy to enable them to participate in an increasingly educated workforce.

2 A survey on the reading profile of Malaysians was conducted in 1996 by an international-based research company, Frank Small and Associates on behalf of the National Library of Malaysia. Information for the study was collected by a household survey sample and survey respondents were persons aged 10 years and above. One of the findings of the survey found that Malaysians read an average of 2 books a year. Background knowledge plays an important role in understanding reading of a text. Readers comprehend the texts better when they are able to relate to the text as it is culturally familiar. When the text is culturally unfamiliar, it is important that teachers activate background knowledge by the use of text previewing which can be in the form of various types of pre-reading activities leading learners towards a better understanding of background knowledge. Reading comprehension today emphasizes the coordinated use of multiple strategies while students seek to comprehend texts. Students learn to engage with texts strategically through a process of teacher modelling, teacher scaffolding and support and gradual independent use to strategies to comprehend the text better (Grabe, 2004). There are many approaches that are commonly referenced as effective combined strategies instruction that improves reading comprehension. Reciprocal Teaching is one of such instructions. It presents a more open framework for instruction in which multiple types of tasks and activitie4s are included. 1.2 Background of the study LEP learners do not realize that the ability to read well is essential in order to survive in today s world. It is difficult to discover any activity that does not demand some form of considerable reading (Bond & Miles, 1973). Many do not realize that reading will continue to be an indispensable tool for acquiring knowledge, advancing one s social and economic status, improving oneself and

3 developing new insights and perspectives (Vacca & Vacca, 1986). Reading should be treated as a purposeful activity (Nuttal, 1996). Reading is an interactive-constructive task (Winch & Hoogstad, 1985). The reader makes sense by interacting with the text and brings it to life by constructing it anew. Learning to read is not an easy task and is probably the most complex mental activity we have to do in our whole lives. It is a slow and difficult process and takes time, effort and practice. It goes without saying that the more practice we have the more competent we become as readers. Learning to read is a complex cognitive task demanding a high level of integration and maturity of a wide variety of abilities and skills (Moyle, 1969). Reading is an integral part of any secondary curriculum. If students lack the skills to read as a way to learn then schools must provide students with the opportunity to develop appropriate and useful reading strategies. The current research on strategic reading instruction centres on the use of and training in multiple strategies to achieve comprehension (commonly include summarizing, clarifying, predicting, forming questions, using prior knowledge, monitoring, and evaluating) for example, the use of reciprocal teaching which will be discussed later. We do not have to look far to realize the apparent lack of interest and problems in reading. The low proficiency English language learners in our classrooms are proof of this growing concern. The problem is so common that we have grown accustomed to seeing them struggle to comprehend written texts. In our classroom today, low proficiency English learners find it a struggle to comprehend the reading comprehension that they need to do as they lack the necessary skills required to understand the passage given to them. These low proficiency English learners are unable to read and comprehend texts found in textbooks and other materials provided by the teacher. There is a tendency by the teacher to spoon-feed information to the students in order to cover the required

4 syllabus. This, no doubt will lead to the downward spiral of low English proficiency learners as they will continue to not read effectively enough to be successful, independent learners in school. Teachers have a gargantuan task in trying to teach reading skills to students. Low proficiency English learners do not act as though they are in control of their reading. They may realise when they come across unfamiliar concepts that they are not getting the meaning of what is being read, but they do not know how to go about helping themselves to understand the text better. Competent readers are able to use their background knowledge to make certain expectations about the texts before they read them. One method that has been explored is reciprocal teaching (Palincsar and Brown, 1984). Reciprocal teaching approaches reading as a problem solving activity which uses four comprehension strategies: questioning, summarizing, clarifying and predicting. The reciprocal teaching model teaches students how to use some of the strategies that can help low English proficiency learners become effective readers. Following the reciprocal teaching procedures, students work in small groups with an adult to practise the strategies of predicting, clarifying, questioning and summarizing in order to become more aware of their own reading comprehension skills. Reciprocal teaching seeks to break down the reading process for students so that they can better understand what they read. Education s ultimate goal is to create independent life-long learners. Students need a variety of skills to succeed beyond the classroom. Schools need to teach and encourage the use of these skills so students reliance on teachers decreases as they progress through the school system. Having the ability to comprehend a complex reading passage is important to becoming an independent learner.

5 In this project, changes were made to the reciprocal teaching procedures to make them easier to implement while maintaining the positive results that other researchers have found in traditional reciprocal teaching. This may encourage more teachers to use the adapted reciprocal teaching approach as it is less time consuming and yet may just be as effective. But are all four strategies really necessary? Were Rosenshine et. al (1996) correct in concluding that the same results could be obtained with only questioning and summarizing? 1.3 Statement of the problem Low English proficiency learners are reluctant to read citing various reasons like being too involved in school activities to going for tuition after school hours. Whatever reasons have been given by the low English proficiency learners, one thing is clear. The majority of our learners are unable to understand written texts. Our students are struggling with written texts as they lack the necessary skills to read and comprehend the texts. The problem is so common that we have grown accustomed to seeing them struggle to comprehend written texts. There is a lack of systematic approach to developing reading skills as teachers go through the reading comprehension sometimes by reading the texts and then asking the students to answer the questions. Teachers attempt to assist these low English proficiency learners by giving them as much help as possible. The help given by teachers is usually to provide them the answers after some unsuccessful attempts to teach these students. The process of helping these low English proficiency learners will result in them not acquiring the necessary skills to become independent learners and being able to take charge of their own learning. To add to this problem, is the fact that each class consists of students of mixed abilities in the English Language as students are often streamed according to their overall achievement. It is indeed a struggle for English language teachers to teach learners of mixed abilities. It is frustrating for both good and poor learners. The good learners will have to work at a much slower pace in order to allow the slow learners to finish their work. With most schools having class size of over 40

6 students in a class, it is indeed a gargantuan task to demand that the English language teacher is able to handle both groups of learners. It is possible but will it be effective? Clearly in such a situation, the conventional teacher-centred large group teaching would not effectively meet the different needs of each student. Thus teachers may have to explore new methods of teaching in order to arrest the downward spiral of many students who cannot read effectively enough to be successful, independent learners in school. Through readings of various methods of teaching reading comprehension, one such method is the reciprocal teaching approach. Reciprocal teaching is an instructional technique developed by Palincsar and Brown (1984) and described by them as a dialogue between teachers and students for the purpose of jointly constructing the meaning of text. Students are taught how to use some of the strategies that help people to become effective readers. By working in small groups, students practice the strategies of predicting, clarifying, questioning and summarizing with an adult. They learn to become more aware of their own reading comprehension skills. There have been numerous articles written about reciprocal teaching on the success rate of using this method found in Lysynchuk, Pressley and Vye (1990), Bruce and Chan (1991). Using the strategies recommended, the success rate of the low English proficiency learners should be just as good. During panel meetings in school, it has been discovered that not a single English Language teacher in SMK St. Teresa, the site of this study is using reciprocal teaching to teach the low English proficiency learners in their class. One of the reasons could be because teachers are not aware of such a teaching method to teach reading comprehension. Using an adapted version of reciprocal teaching on low English proficiency learners can be one of the instructional strategies to teach reading comprehension.

7 1.4 Purpose of the study This project aims to investigate whether an adapted version of reciprocal teaching will improve the reading comprehension ability of low English proficiency learners. Following the Reciprocal Teaching procedure, students work in small groups with an adult to practice the strategies of predicting, clarifying, questioning and summarizing in order to become more aware of their own reading skills. In this research, an adapted version of reciprocal teaching with fourth form students to determine if the procedure would help them better understand what they read was used. Additionally, this research would show if changes made to reciprocal teaching procedures to make them easier to implement, would improve the reading comprehension ability of the students. 1.5 Objectives of the Study This project attempts to achieve the following objectives: 1. To investigate whether an adapted version of reciprocal teaching will improve the reading comprehension ability of low English proficiency learners 2. To find out whether an adapted reciprocal teaching approach will improve the general language proficiency of low English proficiency learners 3. To examine the reactions of low English proficiency learners to an adapted version of reciprocal teaching procedures

8 1.6 Research Questions and Hypotheses 1. Does an adapted reciprocal teaching approach improve the reading comprehension ability of low English proficiency learners? Ho : There is no significant relationship between the teaching of adapted version of reciprocal teaching and an improvement in the reading comprehension ability of low English proficiency learners. H1 : There is a significant relationship between the teaching of adapted version of reciprocal teaching and improvement in the reading comprehension ability of low English proficiency learners 2. Does an adapted reciprocal teaching approach improve the general language proficiency of low English proficiency learners? Ho : There is no significant relationship between the teaching of adapted version of reciprocal teaching and an improvement in the general language proficiency of low English proficiency learners. H1 : There is a significant relationship between the teaching of adapted version of reciprocal teaching and improvement in the general language proficiency of low English proficiency learners 3. What are low proficiency English learners reactions to an adapted version of the reciprocal teaching approach?

9 1.7 Scope of the Study The study investigates the effect of reciprocal teaching on only two aspects of language development, that is, reading comprehension and general language proficiency and not the productive skills. General language proficiency was measured using a cloze test and no attempts would be made to investigate changes in specific areas of language proficiency such as syntax, vocabulary etc. In this study, an adapted version of reciprocal teaching procedure is introduced to twenty (20) Form 4 students from SMK St. Teresa, Kuching. The study was a quasi-experimental study involving two groups of students. One group comprising twenty low proficiency English learners were given the treatment which is the adapted version of reciprocal teaching procedures. The researcher taught the experimental group. The other group, comprising twenty students from Form Four would be the control group. The control group was taught by an English language teacher using the pre, while and post reading approach to teaching comprehension. This study of reciprocal teaching lasted two weeks (8 reciprocal teaching sessions) in late July to early August 2006. The control group was given two weeks of comprehension lessons which comprises 8 lessons. A pre and post- test on reading comprehension ability was given to the students (refer to Appendix A). Students were given a pre and post-test on cloze passages to determine the students general language proficiency before and after the adapted version of reciprocal teaching was taught (refer to Appendix B).

10 1.8 Definitions of terms For the purpose of this study, the terms used are defined as follows: 1.8.1 reciprocal teaching This is a cognitive reading strategy developed by Palincsar and Brown (1984) designed to help students better comprehend when reading texts and better monitor their own comprehension. 1.8.2 reciprocal teaching strategies There are four strategies that comprise reciprocal teaching: predicting students make predictions about what might be upcoming in a text based upon heading, subtitles or previous reading. clarifying students ask questions to better understand terms and concepts questioning students ask questions similar to ones a teacher might ask them about a section after they have read to try to get at the main idea of the section. summarizing students offer short summaries of the text section read before moving on to the next part of the reading. 1.8.3 adapted version of reciprocal teaching strategies This comprises two strategies of questioning and summarizing. The definition of terms for the two strategies are given. 1.8.4 low English proficiency learners These are students who have not achieved a pass in their pre test (marks below 50). These students have been streamed according to their academic ability in SMK St. Teresa and are all found in the last two classes of Form Four. There are seven classes of Form Four in the school.

11 1.9 Significance of the Study The importance of identifying a limited number of powerful reading comprehension strategies cannot be overestimated. Instructional time is limited and teachers must be trained in those strategies likely to have the most positive effects on student achievement. Reciprocal teaching studies demonstrated that a model based on questioning, clarifying, summarizing and predicting was remarkably effective in improving students reading comprehension skills. But are all four strategies really necessary? Were Rosenshine et. al (1996) correct in concluding that the same results could be obtained with only questioning and summarizing? The reason for using reciprocal teaching to teach reading comprehension is because almost 20 years of research exists to support its effectiveness as a method for improving the ability of students to comprehend what they have read. It is important to use an instructional strategy that works as that there is a proven track record of the success rate of reciprocal teaching. Another reason for the interest in reciprocal teaching is whether an adapted version of RT can improve the reading comprehension ability of LEP. RT has not been adopted by English Language teachers in schools in Kuching. This could be because English language teachers have not been exposed to this strategy of teaching reading comprehension. Considering the 20 years of research in reciprocal teaching and its effectiveness on poor readers, it is indeed surprising that it has not been introduced in schools in Kuching or perhaps even the whole of Sarawak. Reciprocal teaching appears to offer a solution to students who have reading problems and cannot comprehend reading texts. Two strategies of questioning and summarizing in an adapted version of reciprocal teaching would be used to teach the low English proficiency learners. The intention of using an adapted version rather than the traditional method of reciprocal teaching is to see whether it can just be as effective. If so, then English Language teachers might be more inclined to use it.

12 The traditional approach to reciprocal teaching is quite time consuming as it uses the four strategies mentioned earlier. Would an adapted version of reciprocal teaching be more palatable to local teachers if it is less time consuming? From studies by Marks et al. (1993) three teachers used adaptations of reciprocal teaching as they were frustrated with conventional reciprocal teaching. Teachers may have been drawn by traditional reciprocal teaching because of its effectiveness in teaching reading comprehension. However, it is time-consuming and may be one of the reasons why teachers are reluctant to use this method even though it has shown to be effective. Reading is an important skill and students should be trained in effective reading skills. This study investigates the effectiveness of one approach to teaching reading skills. An investigation into reciprocal teaching will add to the repertoire of teaching approaches available to teachers. Perhaps an adapted reciprocal teaching approach might be more acceptable to teachers than conventional reciprocal teaching. Marks and Pressley (1993) were struck by the many tales they were told of teachers receiving training in reciprocal teaching, trying it, and then abandoning the method. It is hoped that this adapted version of reciprocal teaching will result in more English Language teachers to use it when teaching reading comprehension to their readers. Most practicing English Language teachers would be encouraged to use an adapted version of reciprocal teaching especially if is just as effective as traditional reciprocal teaching.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This section will review literature that provides the theoretical framework. The first section of the review of literature will encompass the definition and processes involved in reading comprehension and the problems that many students face when confronted with reading tasks in the English Language classroom. The second section of the review looks at the solutions to the problems faced by students in their reading tasks. The third section of the review focuses on the rationale for using the adapted version of reciprocal teaching. The fourth section examines the work that has been previously done on reciprocal teaching. This study will draw directly on this work and the suggestions of other researchers. The fifth section of the review looks at the measurements of reading comprehension. The sixth section of the literature review examines the use of cloze passage and whether it can be used to determine the general language proficiency English learners.

14 2.2 Defining Reading Comprehension Comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading. Teachers and researchers recognise that reading words is no longer enough as it is understanding that is the focus of instruction and evaluation. Prior to the 1970s, little attention was paid to reading comprehension. Reading instruction focussed primarily on the development of mechanical skills and the recitation of factual answers in response to teacher questions. Durkin (1979) played a pivotal role in alerting the educational research community to the lack of reading comprehension instruction with a series of observational studies. According to the research, teachers in the classrooms spent a large amount of time assessing comprehension by giving tests, assignments and asking questions but spent almost no time teaching comprehension skills. Durkin s (1979) studies led to greatly increased interest in reading comprehension. In order to obtain a thorough understanding of the processes involved in reading, it is essential to first and foremost define reading comprehension. Reading is an active process, which involves the recognition of printed or written symbols which triggers meaning through the readers past experiences. The readers past experiences largely determine their interpretation, evaluation and reflection about these meanings (Bond & Miles, 1973). Reading is simply a process of making sense of texts (Smith, 1994). Reading ability is not a specific or single attribute. It is made up of a hierarchy of many skills and abilities and tastes. For the purpose of this study, the focus will be on four reading comprehension skills which are understanding the main idea, locating specific details, making inferences and drawing conclusions. Understanding the main idea refers to the ability to understand the overall meaning or the gist of the text. According to Lass and Davis (1985), it refers to a reader s ability to identify the major components of a selection and these main ideas or themes may be explicitly stated in titles, topics and summarizing sentences. Understanding the main idea is necessary for the interpretation and

15 understanding of what is written. The ability is also known as skimming (Grellet, 1981). Understanding the main idea is necessary for the interpretation and understanding of what is written. If a reader cannot get the main idea, he will not be able to identify the theme of a paragraph, infer from the text and summarize what he has read. Locating specific details refers to the ability to locate specific information in order to answer comprehension questions. This is very much related to the skill of scanning. This is the ability to retrieve information. Scanning demands that a reader quick reads a passage or a text and does not require the reading of each and every word. Making inferences refer to drawing conclusions not stated in the text but implied by facts given. (Nesalamar, Saratha & Teh, 1995). Alvermann and Phelps (1998) further elaborate that when main ideas are implied by an author, readers must make connections between various details and construct their own idea of the author s message. Based on their thorough understanding of a specific text, readers should be able to draw conclusions about the text. This would include stating his opinions based on their evaluation of the text. This skill is known as critical reading where the reader evaluates and makes judgement on what is read.

16 2.3 Processes Involved in Reading Comprehension Reading is a complex process of many dimensions (Irvin, 1988). Obvious various variables such as student proficiency, age, motivation, instructional setting all impact the degree of success of reading instruction (Grabe, 2004). Many research has been conducted over the years, which have reaped conclusive evidence that, contrary to traditional beliefs, reading is an active process (Carrell, 1981). In the past, reading was thought to be a passive process which involved mere decoding of words. Most of the early information processing models of reading followed the bottom up approach. Carrell et al. (1990) points out that early work in second language reading assumed a passive, bottom-up view of second language reading. Second language reading was viewed primarily as a decoding process using letter and word recognition to build meaning. Bottom-up theory argues that the reader constructs the text from the smallest units (letters to words to phrases to sentences) and that the process of constructing the text from those small units becomes so automatic that readers are not aware of how it operates. The problem is also highlighted by Irvin (1998) who claims that past educators viewed the act of reading as a simple task of decoding words. Hence, they placed emphasis on sounding words and recognising words by sight and in isolation. However, research in the fields of psychology, linguistics and education has led to a new conceptualisation of the reading and learning process which recognises reading as a complex and active process (Irvin, 1998). Now, many recognise reading as a process which involves active interaction between the reader and the text. The bottom up model was challenged by the emphasis of top-down control of reading. According to Carrell et al. (1990), the psycholinguistic model of reading began to have an impact on the views of ESL reading and since late 1970s, a top-down approach to second language reading was introduced. Top-down theory argues that readers bring a great deal of knowledge, expectations, assumptions and questions to the text and given a basic understanding of the vocabulary, they continue to read as long as the text confirms their expectations (Goodman, 1967).

17 The top-down school of reading theory argues that readers fit the text into knowledge (cultural, syntactic, linguistic, historical) they already possess, then check back when new or unexpected information appears. In the top-down view of second language reading, not only is the reader an active participant in the reading process, making predictions and processing information, everything in the readers prior knowledge or background knowledge play a potential role in the process. Hence, reading is a mental making process which involves meaning making through the interaction between the reader and the text within a specific context. The idea of prior knowledge and what the readers bring to the text is delineated by Heilmann et al. (1998). According to them, the greater understanding of the reading process is the result of researches conducted in the field of cognitive psychology which introduced two theoretical models the schema theory and the interactive theory. The schema theory stresses the integration of new knowledge with a network of prior knowledge. The schemata are ideas contained within the file folders. Hence, as the readers engage themselves in reading, their schemata will be activated to interact with the new information. Schemata consist of all the information and experiences that the reader has stored in memory. Researchers have identified several specific schemata. Content schema provides readers with a foundation, a basis for comparison (Aebersold & Field, 1997). Readers of a text about a festival can compare it both to specific festivals they have attended and also to the general pattern of festivals in their culture. The Interactive Theory as described by Heilman et al(1998) stresses the fact that reading is an active process. In order to comprehend a text, students interact with various factors related to them, the text being read and the context in which the reading occur. The interactive school of theorists argues that both topdown and bottom-up processes are occurring, both alternately or at the same time. These theorists describe a process that moves both bottom-up and top-down, depending on the type of text as well as on the reader s background knowledge, language proficiency level, motivation, strategy use and culturally shaped beliefs about the reading (Aebersold & Field, 1997).

18 Teaching reading comprehension does not just involve vocabulary teaching and that the focus should not be on the text. On the contrary, the focus should be on the students and building upon their existing knowledge to scaffold the learning process. Bruner uses the term scaffolding to describe the tutorial assistance provided by the adult who knows how to control those elements that are beyond the child s capabilities (Applebee & Langer, 1983). Learners are given as much help as necessary and the assistance given is gradually reduced until the learners are ready to work on their own without the scaffolds. As will be shown later, RT, the focus of this study, incorporates the element of scaffolding in its activities. The teacher s task, in attempting to develop the reading comprehension of students, is to push the learners one step beyond where they are now. The idea of making learners work one step or level beyond their current level of competence is compatible with Krashen s Input Hypothesis (Krashen, 1982). According to the hypothesis, if the input contains forms and structures just beyond the learner s current level of competence in the language (what Krashen calls i+1 ) then both comprehension and acquisition will occur (Krashen, 1982). Krashen asserted that comprehensible input and a low affective filter are the essential ingredients in language acquisition. The reciprocal teaching model incorporates the concepts of comprehensible input and a low affective filter by engaging learners in a social dialogue with the teacher and peers. The distinguishing aspect of reciprocal teaching is the emphasis it places on explicit, scaffolded interaction with experts (Lysynchuk et. al., 1990). Scaffolding is focused on enabling students to develop and move to the next step level; never doing for them anything they are capable of doing for themselves with a little support (Nuttal,1996). Scaffolding provides temporary supports before learners are ready to do unassisted. If reciprocal teaching helps to provide comprehensible input within a low affective filter learning environment, which according to Krashen, will facilitate language development, it therefore follows that the approach could contribute to the growth of general language proficiency in addition to reading comprehension. Such a possibility is worth investigating, as was done in this study.

19 2.4 Problems faced by students with reading tasks Many individuals face difficulty in comprehending reading texts. Their difficulty may stem from different factors. Students have struggled with reading since teachers began teaching. There exists a long line of research related to reading difficulties and their root causes. 2.4.1 Unfamiliar vocabulary Readers are not usually aware of vocabulary unless they encounter unfamiliar words. If the number of unfamiliar words in a text is small and their content is not crucial to the basic meaning of the main message, they do not hinder reading comprehension. However, if there are many unfamiliar words that are key words, comprehension of the text begins to break down. These are the content words like nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. A good reader is one who is successful in both word identification and comprehension. Understanding an author s message is difficult when the vocabulary used conveys little or no meaning to the knowledge. Hence, knowledge of word meaning is a prerequisite to understanding sentences or passages (Lass & Davis, 1985). Lack of vocabulary is a major stumbling block to effective reading. Lass & Davis (1985) assert that the proportion of unknown words in a text should not be more than one word in every twenty to ensure reading effectiveness among readers. A poor reader who has insufficient sight words can be identified by his tendency to read a text word by word due to his inability to form words into thought units or a group of words which make up a meaningful sequence. A learner who is a word-by word reader seldom grasps the meaning of a sentence as a whole, a skill that is essential for a good understanding of the material read. Poor readers tend to pause and read every word (Anuja & Anuja, 1991). The eyes do not make a continuous sweep across the page but move in quick, short movements interspersed with pauses. Hence if the readers pause too long at a

20 word, it shows that they are unfamiliar with or does not understand the meaning of the word. Pausing too long at every word breaks the concentration of the readers and when the readers keep worrying over the unfamiliar word, their chain of thought is interrupted which in turn affects reading efficiency. Contextual analysis requires the reader to attend to the whole sentence or text in order to identify an unknown word within it. In context, a reader is given a number of cues. These cues are usually semantic, syntactic and pictorial. When proficient readers encounter an unfamiliar work, they usually read on, ignoring that word or deriving a partial understanding using context clues as long as their overall comprehension of the passage is satisfactory. If the unfamiliar word is seen or heard again in a different context, a may eventually become well understood. more complete meaning may be built, and the work 2.4.2 Lack of Prior Knowledge Prior knowledge or the reader s schemata refers to the reader s background knowledge in the language of a text as well as his background knowledge on the topic being read. A lack of prior knowledge is detrimental to readers understanding of a text as they are culturally unfamiliar with it. Prior knowledge is fundamental in laying a firm foundation in aiding reading comprehension as a reader draws upon his existing knowledge in order to identify and make associations with what he is reading. Almost all reading researchers agree that background knowledge plays an important role in reading comprehension. Readers comprehend texts better when texts are culturally familiar or when they relate to well-developed disciplinary knowledge or a reader (Grabe, 2004). Carrell (2004) asserts that the readers prior knowledge play an important role in ensuring reader-text interaction. It is the process of making meaning of text using the readers prior knowledge in aiding identification and association. According to Clarke and Silberstein (1979), the readers contribute more information than does the print on the page. That is, readers understand what they

21 read because they are able to associate what they are reading to their knowledge which is already stored in their memory. According to Smith (1994), the more prior knowledge a reader brings, the less visual information is required to identify individual letters. The readers are able to make predictions based on prior knowledge which eliminate unlikely alternatives in advance. Based on this understanding, it is important to prepare topics which are familiar to students. 2.5 Approaches to teaching reading comprehension Researchers have looked at problems with instruction that could lead to reading difficulties for some students. Durkin (1979) found that teachers spent very little time actually teaching students how to comprehend what they read. Pearson and Gallagher (1983) noted that teachers often re-tell what the reading passage is about because they know their students will not understand what they read. Teachers are concerned about covering the content while meeting the needs of the diverse learners in their classrooms (Alfassi, 2000). Many teachers use the textbooks as their primary instructional guide. The curriculum is aligned with the textbooks and most of the information that students will learn outside of the classroom comes from reading their textbooks. The type of instruction is based on the assumption that students can read and understand the material that is presented in their textbooks (Bryant, et. al., 1999). Therefore, many reading programs, especially those that use pre, during and post reading strategies, are designed to increase effectiveness of the textbooks (O Brien, et. al., 1995). Students need the skills and comprehend their textbooks and other types of expository material. As students move into middle school, instruction shifts from an emphasis on learning early reading skills to using content area subject matter (Bryant, et. al., 1999). If students have left elementary school without reading to learn comprehension strategies, then they are at a major disadvantage in their secondary school classes. If the deficiencies in these reading skills are not

22 addressed then the gap widens between the poor readers and the good readers as they advance through school. Reading programs are essential to help students obtain strategies for activating prior knowledge, learning metacognitive skills, and acquiring study strategies. Students lack prior knowledge and do not have good vocabulary skills so it is essential that reading strategies should be adopted to assist poor readers. These programs are designed to assist students with monitoring their comprehension and to help them intentionally apply strategic actions that are under their control (Alfassi, 1998). Many students read or scan assigned readings without thinking about the ideas that are being presented by the author. Research indicates that students can acquire reading strategies if teachers model the skills using guides, organizers and procedures (O Brien, et. al., 1995). Richard Sinatra, a proponent of using concept mapping for reading comprehension, states that students need to read, hear or see the entire topic presentation before engaging in the mapping process (Sinatra, 2000). Katim and Harmon, using a graphic organiser combined with questioning strategies, found that students had made academically significant gains in comprehending social studies reading passages (Katim & Harmon, 2000). The use of graphic organizers helped students at all levels with reading comprehension. Graphic organizers require students to reflect, review and reorganize what they read into another form. These skills help students see the interrelationships of ideas that leads to better organization and retention of expository reading material (Bryant, et al., 1999). Teaching students to formulate questions about the reading material aids readers in developing skills. Freshman from an urban school combined strategic questioning and main idea identification techniques to improve their reading comprehension (Spiak, 1999). In this study, students were asked to develop questions using reciprocal teaching strategies as well as identifying the main idea of the reading. The study found that students who wrote their responses scored better than non-writers. Self-questioning activities help the students to reflect on and monitor their understanding as they read the text (Bryant, et al., 1999). This

23 practice is effective because it helps students establish reasonable and focussed purposes for their reading (Vacca & Vacca, 1986) The activities that readers do before, during and after reading are quite varied and some examples may help. Before reading, good readers set a purpose for their reading. They skim the text and activate their prior knowledge related to the topic they will read about. During reading, these readers repeat or restate important points, take notes, make predictions about what may be coming next or paraphrase what they have read. After reading, good readers will reread, reflect, question themselves or summarize what they have read. Many of the comprehension processes used by good readers like predicting, self-questioning, clarifying and summarizing are being taught to students through the process of reciprocal teaching. In the 1960s, Robinson (1961) developed SQ3R Survey, Question, Read, Review, Recite. Students were asked to break down the reading process and interact with the text as he or she read. This was a strategy widely practised at that time. Throughout the 1980s, researchers expanded on cognitive strategies instruction practices and showed positive results in student reading achievement. Brown, Campione and Day (1981) examined how to improve the ability of teachers to help students learn how to learn. Teaching students to be independent learners was the main focus of learning how to learn. There was a need for students to realise the importance to be a knowing participant in his or her strategy instruction. Reading achievement depends not only on cognitive abilities but also on the reader s motivation. Many students who seem unmotivated or who appear to be less able readers probably also do not possess the strategies to monitor their own learning so they need to be taught to learn how to learn. With reference to the literature review, much has been said about the problems faced by students in their reading tasks and the various strategies used to improve their reading comprehension. For the purpose of this study, the focus will be on one of these strategies, which is reciprocal teaching as it has shown great potential in helping students better understand what they have read.