PREFACE FOR INSTRUCTORS HOW TO USE THIS BOOK AND ITS WEB SITE v xv The Writing Process 1 1. Generate ideas and sketch a plan. 2 a. Assessing the writing situation 2 b. Exploring your subject 11 c. Formulating a tentative thesis 16 d. Sketching a plan 17 2. Rough out an initial draft. 20 a. Drafting an introduction that includes a thesis 21 b. Drafting the body 25 c. Attempting a conclusion 26 3. Make global revisions; then revise sentences. 27 a. Making global revisions 27 b. Revising and editing sentences; proofreading 29 STUDENT ESSAY 31 4. Build effective paragraphs. 40 a. Focusing on a main point 40 b. Developing the main point 43 c. Choosing a suitable pattern of organization 44 d. Making paragraphs coherent 50 e. Adjusting paragraph length 56 xxiii
xxiv Document Design 59 5. Become familiar with the principles of document design. 60 a. Format options 60 b. Headings 63 c. Lists 65 d. Visuals 66 6. Use standard academic formatting. 70 a. Academic formats 70 b. MLA essay format 70 7. Use standard business formatting. 70 a. Business letters 73 SAMPLE BUSINESS LETTER 73 b. Résumés and cover letters 74 SAMPLE RÉSUMÉ 75 c. Memos 77 SAMPLE BUSINESS MEMO 77 d. E-mail messages 78 Clarity 79 8. Prefer active verbs. 80 a. Active versus passive verbs 81 b. Active versus be verbs 82 9. Balance parallel ideas. 84 a. Parallel ideas in a series 84 b. Parallel ideas presented as pairs 85 c. Repetition of function words 87 10. Add needed words. 88 a. In compound structures 88 b. that 89 c. In comparisons 89 d. a, an, and the 91
xxv 11. Untangle mixed constructions. 92 a. Mixed grammar 92 b. Illogical connections 94 c. is when, is where, and reason... is because 95 12. Repair misplaced and dangling modifiers. 96 a. Limiting modifiers 96 b. Misplaced phrases and clauses 97 c. Awkwardly placed modifiers 98 d. Split infinitives 99 e. Dangling modifiers 100 13. Eliminate distracting shifts. 104 a. Point of view (person, number) 104 b. Verb tense 106 c. Verb mood, voice 107 d. Indirect to direct questions or quotations 108 14. Emphasize key ideas. 109 a. Coordination and subordination 110 b. Choppy sentences 112 c. Ineffective or excessive coordination 115 d. Subordination for emphasis 117 e. Excessive subordination 118 f. Other techniques 119 15. Provide some variety. 120 a. Sentence openings 121 b. Sentence structures 122 c. Inverted order 122 16. Tighten wordy sentences. 123 a. Redundancies 123 b. Unnecessary repetition 124 c. Empty or inflated phrases 124 d. Simplifying the structure 125 e. Reducing clauses to phrases, phrases to single words 126 17. Choose appropriate language. 128 a. Jargon 128
xxvi b. Pretentious language, euphemisms, doublespeak 129 c. Obsolete and invented words 131 d. Slang, regional expressions, nonstandard English 132 e. Levels of formality 133 f. Sexist language 134 g. Offensive language 138 18. Find the exact words. 138 a. Connotations 139 b. Specific, concrete nouns 139 c. Misused words 140 d. Standard idioms 141 e. Clichés 143 f. Figures of speech 144 Grammar 147 19. Repair sentence fragments. 148 a. Subordinate clauses 151 b. Phrases 152 c. Other fragmented word groups 152 d. Acceptable fragments 154 20. Revise run-on sentences. 156 a. Correction with coordinating conjunction 160 b. Correction with semicolon, colon, or dash 160 c. Correction by separating sentences 161 d. Correction by restructuring 162 21. Make subjects and verbs agree. 164 a. Standard subject-verb combinations 165 b. Words between subject and verb 167 c. Subjects joined with and 168 d. Subjects joined with or, nor, either... or, or neither... nor 168 e. Indefinite pronouns 169 f. Collective nouns 170
xxvii g. Subject following verb 171 h. Subject, not subject complement 172 i. who, which, and that 172 j. Words with plural form, singular meaning 173 k. Titles of works, company names, words mentioned as words, gerund phrases 173 22. Make pronouns and antecedents agree. 175 a. Singular with singular, plural with plural (indefinite pronouns, generic nouns) 177 b. Collective nouns 179 c. Antecedents joined with and 179 d. Antecedents joined with or, nor, either... or, or neither... nor 179 23. Make pronoun references clear. 181 a. Ambiguous or remote reference 182 b. Broad reference of this, that, which, and it 182 c. Implied antecedents 183 d. Indefinite use of they, it, and you 184 e. who for persons, which or that for things 185 24. Distinguish between pronouns such as I and me. 186 a. Subjective case for subjects and subject complements 187 b. Objective case for objects 188 c. Appositives 189 d. Pronoun following than or as 189 e. we or us before a noun 190 f. Subjects and objects of infinitives 190 g. Pronoun modifying a gerund 191 25. Distinguish between who and whom. 193 a. In subordinate clauses 194 b. In questions 196 c. As subjects or objects of infinitives 196 26. Choose adjectives and adverbs with care. 197 a. Adverbs as modifiers 198 b. Adjectives as complements 199
xxviii c. Comparatives and superlatives 200 d. Double negatives 202 27. Choose appropriate verb forms, tenses, and moods in standard English. 203 a. Irregular verbs 204 b. lie and lay 207 c. -s (or -es) endings 209 d. -ed endings 212 e. Omitted verbs 214 f. Verb tense 215 g. Subjunctive mood 220 ESL Challenges 223 28. Verbs 224 a. Appropriate form and tense 224 b. Base form after a modal 228 c. Passive voice 232 d. Negative verb forms 235 e. Verbs in conditional sentences 236 f. Verbs followed by gerunds or infinitives 239 29. Articles and types of nouns 242 a. Articles and other noun markers 243 b. Types of nouns 243 c. When to use the 246 d. When to use a or an 249 e. When not to use a or an 249 f. No articles with general nouns 250 g. Articles with proper nouns 251 30. Sentence structure 253 a. Linking verb between a subject and its complement 253 b. A subject in every sentence 253 c. Repeated nouns or pronouns with the same grammatical function 255 d. Repeated objects, adverbs in adjective clauses 256 e. Mixed constructions with although or because 258
xxix f. Placement of adverbs 259 g. Present participles and past participles 260 h. Order of cumulative adjectives 262 31. Prepositions and idiomatic expressions 264 a. Prepositions showing time and place 264 b. Noun (including -ing form) after a preposition 266 c. Common adjective + preposition combinations 267 d. Common verb + preposition combinations 267 Punctuation 269 32. The comma 270 a. Independent clauses joined with and, but, etc. 270 b. Introductory clauses or phrases 271 c. Items in a series 273 d. Coordinate adjectives 274 e. Nonrestrictive elements 275 f. Transitions, parenthetical expressions, absolute phrases, contrasts 279 g. Direct address, yes and no, interrogative tags, interjections 281 h. he said, etc. 281 i. Dates, addresses, titles, numbers 282 j. To prevent confusion 283 33. Unnecessary commas 285 a. Between compound elements that are not independent clauses 285 b. After a phrase beginning an inverted sentence 286 c. Before the first or after the last item in a series 286 d. Between cumulative adjectives, an adjective and a noun, or an adverb and an adjective 286 e. Before and after restrictive or mildly parenthetical elements 287 f. Before essential concluding adverbial elements 288 g. Between a verb and its subject or object 288 h. Other misuses 289
xxx 34. The semicolon 291 a. Independent clauses not joined with a coordinating conjunction 291 b. Independent clauses linked with a transitional expression 292 c. Series containing internal punctuation 293 d. Misuses 293 35. The colon 296 a. Before a list, an appositive, or a quotation 296 b. Between independent clauses 296 c. Salutations, hours and minutes, proportions, titles and subtitles, bibliographic entries 297 d. Misuses 297 36. The apostrophe 298 a. Possessive nouns 299 b. Possessive indefinite pronouns 300 c. Contractions 300 d. Not for plural numbers, letters, abbreviations, words mentioned as words 300 e. Misuses 301 37. Quotation marks 302 a. Direct quotations 303 b. Long quotations 303 c. Quotation within a quotation 304 d. Titles of works 305 e. Words as words 305 f. With other punctuation marks 305 g. Misuses 308 38. End punctuation 309 a. The period 309 b. The question mark 310 c. The exclamation point 311 39. Other punctuation marks: the dash, parentheses, brackets, the ellipsis mark, the slash 311 a. Dash 311
xxxi b. Parentheses 313 c. Brackets 313 d. Ellipsis mark 314 e. Slash 315 Mechanics 317 40. Abbreviations 318 a. Titles with proper names 318 b. Familiar abbreviations 318 c. Conventional abbreviations 319 d. Latin abbreviations 319 e. Misuses 320 41. Numbers 321 a. Spelling out 321 b. Using figures 322 42. Italics (underlining) 323 a. Titles of works 324 b. Names of spacecraft, aircraft, and ships 325 c. Foreign words 325 d. Words mentioned as words, letters mentioned as letters, and numbers mentioned as numbers 326 e. Misuses 326 43. Spelling 327 a. The dictionary 328 b. Words that sound alike 331 c. Spelling rules 332 d. Commonly misspelled words 334 44. The hyphen 336 a. Compound words 336 b. Hyphenated adjectives 337 c. Fractions and compound numbers 337 d. With certain prefixes and suffixes 337 e. To avoid ambiguity or to separate awkward double or triple letters 338 f. Word division 338
xxxii 45. Capital letters 340 a. Proper versus common nouns 340 b. Titles with proper names 342 c. Titles and subtitles of works 342 d. First word of a sentence 342 e. First word of a quoted sentence 343 f. First word after a colon 343 g. Abbreviations 344 Academic Writing 345 46. Writing about texts 346 a. Reading actively: annotating the text 346 SAMPLE ANNOTATED READING 348 SAMPLE ANNOTATED VISUAL 349 b. Sketching an outline 350 SAMPLE OUTLINE 350 c. Summarizing 351 d. Analyzing 352 SAMPLE ANALYSIS PAPER 354 e. Understanding the types of texts analyzed in different disciplines 357 47. Constructing reasonable arguments 358 a. Examining your issue s social and intellectual contexts 360 b. Viewing your audience as a panel of jurors 360 c. Establishing credibility and stating your position 361 d. Backing up your thesis with persuasive lines of argument 362 e. Supporting your claims with specific evidence 363 f. Anticipating objections; countering opposing arguments 364 g. Building common ground 366 h. Sample argument paper 366
xxxiii 48. Evaluating arguments 371 a. Distinguishing between reasonable and fallacious argumentative tactics 371 b. Distinguishing between legitimate and unfair emotional appeals 377 c. Judging how fairly a writer handles opposing views 378 Research 381 49. Conducting research 383 a. Posing questions worth exploring 383 b. Mapping out a search strategy 385 c. Searching a database or consulting a print index to locate articles 388 d. Consulting the library s catalog to locate books 390 e. Using the Web to find a variety of sources 392 f. Using other search tools 395 g. Conducting field research 397 50. Evaluating sources 397 a. Determining how a source will contribute to your writing 398 b. Selecting sources worth your time and attention 398 c. Reading with an open mind and a critical eye 401 d. Assessing Web sources with special care 403 51. Managing information; avoiding plagiarism 405 a. Maintaining a working bibliography 405 b. Keeping track of source materials 406 c. Avoiding unintentional plagiarism 406 Writing MLA Papers 411 52. Supporting a thesis 411 a. Forming a tentative thesis 411 b. Organizing your evidence 412
xxxiv c. Using sources to inform and support your argument 413 53. Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism 415 a. Citing quotations and borrowed ideas 415 b. Enclosing borrowed language in quotation marks 416 c. Putting summaries and paraphrases in your own words 417 54. Integrating sources 418 a. Limiting your use of quotations 418 b. Using signal phrases to integrate sources 421 55. Documenting sources 426 a. MLA in-text citations 427 b. MLA list of works cited 435 c. MLA information notes (optional) 462 56. MLA manuscript format; sample paper 463 a. MLA manuscript format 463 b. Sample MLA research paper 466 Writing APA Papers 476 57. Supporting a thesis 476 a. Forming a thesis 476 b. Organzing your evidence 477 c. Using sources to inform and support your argument 477 58. Citing sources; avoiding plagiarism 479 a. Citing quotations and borrowed ideas 480 b. Enclosing borrowed language in quotation marks 481 c. Putting summaries and paraphrases in your own words 482
xxxv 59. Integrating sources 483 a. Limiting your use of quotations 483 b. Using signal phrases to integrate sources 485 60. Documenting sources 489 a. APA in-text citations 490 b. APA references 495 61. APA manuscript format; sample paper 511 a. APA manuscript format 511 b. Sample APA research paper 514 Basics 529 62. Parts of speech 530 a. Nouns 530 b. Prounouns 531 c. Verbs 534 d. Adjectives 536 e. Adverbs 537 f. Prepositions 538 g. Conjunctions 539 h. Interjections 540 63. Sentence patterns 543 a. Subjects 543 b. Verbs, objects, and complements 546 c. Pattern variations 551 64. Subordinate word groups 552 a. Prepositional phrases 553 b. Subordinate clauses 554 c. Verbal phrases 558 d. Appositive phrases 561 e. Absolute phrases 561
xxxvi 65. Sentence types 561 a. Sentence structures 562 b. Sentence purposes 563 GLOSSARY OF USAGE 565 ANSWERS TO TUTORIALS AND LETTERED EXERCISES 578 INDEX 593 LIST OF STYLE MANUALS ESL MENU REVISION SYMBOLS