Emotions in Multiple Languages

Emotions in Multiple Languages

Also by Jean-Marc Dewaele OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF BILINGUALISM (co-edited with Li Wei and A. Housen, 2002) BILINGUALISM: Basic Principles and Beyond (co-edited with Li Wei and A. Housen, 2003) FOCUS ON FRENCH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE: Multidisciplinary Approaches (editor, 2005)

Emotions in Multiple Languages Jean-Marc Dewaele Professor of Applied Linguistics and Multilingualism, Birkbeck College, University of London, UK

Jean-Marc Dewaele 2010 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2010 978-1-4039-4316-3 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2010 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave and Macmillan are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-52184-5 ISBN 978-0-230-28950-5 (ebook) DOI 10.1057/9780230289505 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10

To Katja and Livia

Contents List of Illustrations List of Abbreviations Preface and Acknowledgements Note on the Author viii xiv xv xvi Introduction 1 1 Perspectives on Emotion 16 2 Epistemological and Methodological Perspectives in SLA and Multilingualism Research 30 3 Method, Research Question and Hypotheses 41 4 The Independent Variables 51 5 Results: Self-perceived Competence in Oral and Written Language 69 6 Results: Communicating Feelings (in general) 86 7 Results: Communicating Anger and Swearing 105 8 Results: Attitudes towards Languages and Perception of Emotionality of Swearwords 132 9 Results: Foreign Language Anxiety 167 10 Results: Code-Switching and Emotion 189 11 Concluding Remarks 215 Appendix 224 References 231 Author Index 253 Subject Index 259 vii

List of Illustrations Tables 1 Distribution of participants according to AoA (in %) 56 2 Distribution of participants according to context of acquisition of the LX (in %) 57 3 Distribution of participants according to frequency of use of the different languages (in %) 59 4 Distribution of participants according to degree of socialisation in the LX (in %) 60 5 Distribution of participants according to the network of interlocutors in the different languages (in %) 61 6 Cross-tabulation of gender and age of participants 68 7 The effect of chronology of acquisition on self-perceived competence from L1 to L5 ( 2 ) 71 8 The effect of AoA in the LX on self-perceived competence in oral and written skills ( 2 ) 73 9 The effect of context of acquisition of the LX on self-perceived competence in oral and written skills ( 2 ) 74 10 The effect of general frequency of use of the LX on self-perceived competence in oral and written skills ( 2 ) 76 11 The effect of degree of socialisation in the LX on self-perceived competence in oral and written skills ( 2 ) 77 12 The effect of network of interlocutors in the LX on self-perceived competence in oral and written skills ( 2 ) 78 13 The effect of knowing more languages on self-perceived competence in oral and written skills ( 2 ) 80 14 The effect of TEI on self-perceived competence in oral and written skills ( 2 ) 81 15 Differences in self-perceived competence between female and male participants 81 16 The effect of age on self-perceived competence in oral and written skills ( 2 ) 82 17 The effect of education level on self-perceived competence in oral and written skills ( 2 ) 83 18 The effect of chronology of acquisition on likelihood of choice of language for expressing feelings from L1 to L5 ( 2 ) 88 19 The effect of AoA of the LX on likelihood of choice of the LX to express feelings ( 2 ) 91 viii

List of Illustrations ix 20 The effect of context of acquisition of the LX on likelihood of choice of the LX to express feelings ( 2 ) 93 21 The effect of frequency of general use of the LX on likelihood of language choice of the LX to express feelings ( 2 ) 94 22 The effect of degree of socialisation in the LX on likelihood of choice of the LX to express feelings ( 2 ) 96 23 The effect of network of interlocutors in the LX on likelihood of choice of the LX to express feelings ( 2 ) 98 24 The effect of total language knowledge on likelihood of choice of the LX to express feelings ( 2 ) 100 25 The effect of TEI on likelihood of choice of the LX to express feelings ( 2 ) 101 26 Differences in likelihood of language choice to express feelings between female and male participants in the LX 101 27 The effect of age on likelihood of choice of the LX to express feelings ( 2 ) 102 28 The effect of education level on likelihood of choice of the LX to express feelings ( 2 ) 102 29 The effect of chronology of acquisition on language choice for expressing anger and swearing from L1 to L5 ( 2 ) 109 30 The effect of AoA on frequency of use of the LX to express anger and to swear ( 2 ) 113 31 The effect of context of acquisition on frequency of use of the LX to express anger ( 2 ) 114 32 The effect of general frequency of use on frequency of use of the LX to express anger ( 2 ) 116 33 The effect of degree of socialisation in the LX on frequency of use of the LX to express anger ( 2 ) 118 34 The effect of network of interlocutors in the LX on likelihood of choice of the LX to express anger ( 2 ) 124 35 The effect of total language knowledge on frequency of choice of the LX to express anger ( 2 ) 126 36 The effect of TEI on frequency of choice of the LX to express anger ( 2 ) 127 37 Differences in frequency of use of language choice to express anger and to swear between female and male participants in the L2, L3, L4 and L5 (Z) 127 38 The effect of age on frequency of use of the LX to express anger ( 2 ) 128 39 The effect of education level on frequency of use of the LX to express anger ( 2 ) 129 40 The effect of chronology of acquisition on perception of language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords from L1 to L5 ( 2 ) 148

x List of Illustrations 41 The effect of AoA in the LX on perception scores of language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the LX ( 2 ) 152 42 The effect of context of acquisition of the LX on perception of language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the LX ( 2 ) 153 43 The effect of general frequency of use of the LX on perception of language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the LX ( 2 ) 154 44 The effect of degree of socialisation in the LX on perception of language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the LX ( 2 ) 157 45 The effect of the network of interlocutors on perception of language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords ( 2 ) 158 46 The effect of total language knowledge on perception of language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords ( 2 ) 160 47 The effect of TEI on perception of language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the LX ( 2 ) 161 48 Differences in the perception of language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords between female and male participants in the LX (Z) 162 49 The effect of age on perception of language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the LX ( 2 ) 163 50 The effect of education level on perception of language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the LX ( 2 ) 164 51 The effect of chronology of acquisition on CA and FLA from L1 to L5 ( 2 ) 173 52 The effect of AoA in the LX on FLA in the LX ( 2 ) 175 53 The effect of context of acquisition of the LX on FLA in the LX ( 2 ) 177 54 The effect of general frequency of use of the LX on FLA in the LX ( 2 ) 178 55 The effect of socialisation in the LX on FLA in the LX ( 2 ) 179 56 The effect of network of interlocutors in the LX on FLA in the LX ( 2 ) 181 57 The effect of total language knowledge on FLA in the LX ( 2 ) 182 58 The effect of TEI on FLA values in the LX ( 2 ) 183 59 Differences in FLA between female and male participants in the LX (Z) 184 60 The effect of age on FLA in the LX ( 2 ) 185 61 The effect of education level on FLA in the LX ( 2 ) 186

List of Illustrations xi 62 The effect of gender on self-reported frequency of CS (Z) 198 63 The relationship between age and self-reported frequency of CS (Spearman Rho) 199 64 The effect of education level on self-reported frequency of self-reported CS ( 2 ) 199 65 The relationship between level of education and level of oral competence in the LX (Spearman Rho) 200 66 The difference between language-related and non-language related professions on self-reported frequency of CS (Z) 200 67 The effect of number of languages known on self-reported frequency of CS ( 2 ) 201 68 The relationship between self-reported frequency of CS and level of oral competence in the LX (Spearman Rho ) 202 69 The effect of language dominance on self-reported frequency of CS (Z) 202 70 The number of significant relationships (p <.05) between independent and dependent variables in the LX out of the total number of cases 216 Figures 1 Mean values for self-perceived competence from L1 to L5 72 2 Mean values for self-perceived competence in oral and written skills in the L2 according to AoA 73 3 Mean values for self-perceived competence in oral and written skills in the L2 according to context of acquisition 75 4 Mean values for self-perceived competence in the L2 according to frequency of use of the L2 76 5 Mean values for self-perceived competence in the L2 according to level of socialisation in the L2 77 6 Mean values for self-perceived competence in the L2 according to network of interlocutors 79 7 Mean values for self-perceived competence in oral and written skills in the L2 according to the knowledge of more languages 80 8 Differences in self-perceived competence between female and male participants in the L2 82 9 The effect of age on self-perceived competence in the L2 83 10 The effect of education level on self-perceived competence in the L2 84 11 Mean values for likelihood to express feelings in the L1, L2, L3, L4 and L5 88 12 The effect of AoA on frequency of use of the L2 to express feelings 92

xii List of Illustrations 13 Mean values for likelihood of use of the L2 to express feelings according to context of acquisition of the L2 93 14 Mean values for likelihood of L2 use to express feelings according to frequency of general use of the L2 95 15 Mean values for likelihood of use of the L2 according to level of socialisation in the L2 97 16 Mean values for likelihood of use of the L2 to express feelings according to network of interlocutors 99 17 Mean values for likelihood of choice of the L2 to express feelings in according to total language knowledge 100 18 Differences in likelihood of L2 choice to express feelings between female and male participants 102 19 Mean values for language choice for expressing anger and swearing in the L1, L2, L3, L4 and L5 109 20 Mean values for frequency of use of the L2 to express anger according to AoA 113 21 Mean values for frequency of use of the L2 to express anger according to context of acquisition 114 22 Mean values for frequency of use of the L2 to express anger according to general frequency of use of the L2 117 23 Mean values for frequency of use of the L2 to express anger according to level of socialisation in the L2 119 24 Mean values for frequency of use of the L2 to express anger and swear according to network of interlocutors 124 25 Mean values for frequency of use of the L2 to express anger according to total language knowledge 126 26 Mean values for frequency of use of the L2 to express anger according to gender 128 27 Mean values for frequency of use of the L2 to express anger according to education level 129 28 Mean values for language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords from the L1 to the L5 149 29 Mean values for language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the L2 according to AoA 152 30 Mean values for language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the L2 according to context of acquisition 153 31 Mean values for language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the L2 according to general frequency of use of the L2 155 32 Mean values for language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the L2 according to level of socialisation in the L2 157

List of Illustrations xiii 33 Mean values for language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the L2 according to network of interlocutors 159 34 Mean values for language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the L2 according to total language knowledge 160 35 Mean values for language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the L2 according to TEI 161 36 Mean values for language characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the L2 according to age 163 37 The effect of education level on perception scores of positive characteristics and emotional strength of swearwords in the L2 164 38 Mean values for CA and FLA values from L1 to L5 174 39 Mean FLA values in the L2 according to AoA 176 40 Mean FLA values in the L2 according to context of acquisition 177 41 Mean FLA values in the L2 according to general frequency of use of the L2 178 42 Mean FLA values in the L2 according to level of socialisation in the L2 180 43 Mean FLA values in the L2 according to network of interlocutors in the L2 181 44 Mean FLA values in the L2 according to total language knowledge in the L2 182 45 Mean FLA values in the L2 according to TEI 183 46 Mean FLA values in the L2 according to age 185 47 Mean values of FLA in the L2 according to education level 186 48 Mean value of frequency of self-reported CS according to interlocutor 196 49 Mean value of frequency of self-reported CS according to topic of conversation 197

List of Abbreviations AoA Age of onset of acquisition ANOVA Analysis of variance CA Communicative anxiety CS Code-switching CP Critical Period CPH Critical Period Hypothesis FL Foreign language FLA Foreign language anxiety IL Interlanguage L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 first, second, third, fourth, fifth language to have been acquired LX One of the languages of a multilingual acquired after the establishment of the L1(s) and undetermined in terms of chronology of acquisition or proficiency NNS Non-native speaker NS Native speaker SLA Second Language Acquisition TEI Trait Emotional Intelligence TL Target language xiv

Preface and Acknowledgements I very gratefully acknowledge the invaluable contributions of many friends, colleagues, students, reviewers of several of my papers on the topic and, especially, the many participants to the web questionnaire and the 20 participants who agreed to be interviewed. Special thanks go to the co-author of the Bilingualism and Emotions web questionnaire (Dewaele and Pavlenko, 2001 2003), Professor Aneta Pavlenko, whose pioneering work in the field of multilingualism and emotion has been an inspiration to many researchers. Her insights and her judicious feedback on various manuscripts since our initial collaboration in 2000 have substantially contributed toward the development of my own thinking on the subject. I am very grateful to her, Professor Li Wei and Emeritus Professor Arthur Van Essen, who read an earlier version of the present book and made excellent critical comments and suggestions for improvement. I would also like to thank my friends and colleagues Professor Adrian Furnham, Dr Dino Petrides and Dr Rosemary Wilson for collaborating with me on various papers, some of which have been integrated into the present book. Professor Jeanette Altarriba, Professor Catherine Caldwell-Harris, Professor Jasone Cenoz, Professor Vivian Cook, Dr Gessica De Angelis, Professor François Grosjean, Dr Zhu Hua and Professor Timothy Jay have also been rich sources of information and suggestions. I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr Benedetta Bassetti for carrying out the interviews with 20 adult multilinguals in London. This particular project entitled The communication of emotion in multiple languages was funded by a Small Research Grant from the British Academy (SG-42593) in 2006. I wish to thank the people from Palgrave Macmillan for their support, with special thanks to Ms Vidhya Jayaprakash and the proofreader for an excellent job. I also thank my wife Katja and my daughter Livia for their unstinting support and for putting up with it all. Finally, I would like to thank my parents whose love and support allowed me to blossom. xv

Note on the Author Jean-Marc Dewaele (MA French, MA Spanish, MA European & International Law, MA Eastern European Affairs, PhD in Romance Languages and Literature (Free University of Brussels, 1993)) is Professor of Applied Linguistics and Multilingualism at Birkbeck College, University of London. He has published widely on individual differences in psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, psychological and emotional aspects of Second Language Acquisition and Multilingualism. He is president of the European Second Language Association (2007 2011) and Convenor of the AILA Research Network Multilingualism: Acquisition and Use. He is member of the editorial boards of The International Journal of Multilingualism, Intercultural Pragmatics, Estudios de Linguistica Inglesa Aplicada, Vigo International Journal of Applied Linguistics, and the Canadian Modern Language Review. He is Associate Editor of the International Journal of Bilingualism and Editor of the Birkbeck Studies in Applied Linguistics. He was Reviews Editor of Sociolinguistic Studies (2006 2010) and is the new Reviews Editor of the International Journal of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education. xvi