An Introduction to English Language Word, Sound and Sentence Second edition Koenraad Kuiper AND W. Scott Allan macmillan
Contents Preface to the second edition Preface to the first edition Acknowledgements Abbreviations and symbols The International Phonetic Alphabet XII xiv xvii xix xxi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: WHAT IS A LANGUAGE? 1.1 Properties of human language 1.1.1 Language is a code 1.1.2 Linguistic symbols have function and form 1.1.3 Linguistic units are constructed according to rules 1.1.4 Language is specifically human 1.1.5 Language use is creative 1.1.6 Language use is constrained Glossary Further reading 1 2 3 6 8 9 10 13 15 part one Words 17 fghapter 2 THE FORM AND FUNCTION OF WORDS Introduction: dictionaries and lexemes 2.1 Words and their grammatical categories: syntactic categories and inflection 2.1.1 Introduction 2.1.2 Nouns 2.1.3 Adjectives 19 19 21 21 22 25 vii
viii C0NTEN1 2.1.4 Verbs ; 2.1.5 Adverbs [ 2.1.6 Prepositions '. 2.2 Word formation! 2.2.1 Compounding : 2.2.2 Derivational affixation 2.2.3 Conversion 2.3 Kinds of morphemes 2.3.1 Bound and free morphemes 2.3.2 Stems and affixes 2.3.3 More on inflectional morphemes 2.4 Morphological properties 2.4.1 Existing and non-existing, possible and impossible words 2.4.2 Productivity 2.4.3 Diagramming word structure CHAPTER 3 i WORD MEANINGS AND VOCABULARIES 3.1 The meaning of words 3.1.1 Sameness and difference of sense 3.1.2 Oppositeness of sense 3.1.3 Sense components 3.1.4 Tropes 3.1.5 Word meanings in context 3.1.6 Reference 3.1.7 Word associations and connotations 3.2 Vocabularies 3.2.1 Adding to vocabularies 3.2.2 Coining new words 3.2.3 Change through time 3.2.4 Reduced usage, archaism and loss 3.2.5 Word histories 3.2.6 Dialect vocabularies 3.2.7 Specialist vocabularies 3.2.8 Formality and vocabulary 3.2.9 Dictionaries Glossary Further reading
CONTENTS IX part two Sounds 101 ^CHAPTER 4 SPEECH SOUNDS 4.1 Sounds and spelling 4.1.1 The International Phonetic Alphabet 4.2 Articulatory phonetics 4.2.1 Organs of speech 4.2.2 Speech production 4.2.3 Vowels 103 104 107 112 112 115 125 130 CHAPTER 5 THE PHONOLOGY OF ENGLISH Introduction - sounds: same vs different 5.1 Identification of phonemes 5.1.1 Complementary distribution 5.1.2 Defective distribution 5.1.3 Parallel distribution 5.1.4 Free variation 5.1.5 Variation and dialects 5.2 Phonemes and allophones revisited 5.3 Phonemic analysis 5.3.1 The phonemic system 5.3.2 Phonotactics 5.3.3 Allophonic rules 5.4 Allophonic processes 5.4.1 Aspiration 5.4.2 Assimilation 5.4.3 Elision 5.4.4 Insertion 5.5 Allophones 5.5.1 Oral stops 5.5.2 Voiced fricatives 5.5.3 Sonorants 5.5.4 Vowels 5.6 Derivations 5.7 Features 5.7.1 The necessity of features 5.7.2 A set of distinctive features for English 135 135 139 140 141 142 146 147 151 152 152 153 155 158 158 159 163 164 165 165 166 166 167 168 168 169 171
5.7.3 5.7.4 5.7.5 5.7.6 5.7.7 5.7.8 5.7.9 5.7.10 5.7.11 5.7.12 Classificatory features Nasals Place of articulation features Tongue body features Further articulatory features Manner features Source features Feature matrices and redundancy Natural classes The plural revisited CHAPTER 6 SYLLABLES AND SUPRASEGMENTALS 6.1 6.2 6.3 Syllables 6.1.1 Syllable boundaries and phonotactics 6.1.2 Syllable structure 6.1.3 Nucleus, rhyme, onset and coda 6.1.4 Rhyme schemes Suprasegmental features of English 6.2.1 Pitch 6.2.2 Intonation Stress 6.3.1 Levels of stress 6.3.2 Stress in connected speech: rhythm 6.3.3 Rhythm and meter in poetry Glossary Further reading part three Sentences CHAPTER 7 THE STRUCTURE OF SIMPLE SENTENCES Introduction 7.1 Simple phrases 7.1.1 Three ways to identify phrases 7.1.2 Heads and modifiers 7.1.3 Noun phrase 7.1.4 Adjective phrase 7.1.5 Prepositional phrase 7.1.6 Verb phrase
CONTENTS xi 7.2 Simple clauses and their functional constituents 7.2.1 Subject 7.2.2 Predicate 7.2.3 Objects 7.2.4 Intensive complements 7.2.5 Adverbials 256 256 258 259 263 265 267 CHAPTERJ3 COMPLEX SYNTAX 269 8.1 Complex phrases and clauses 269 8.1.1 Subcategorization of heads of phrase 275 8.1.2 Co-ordination 278 8.2 Syntactic relatedness 283 8.2.1 Yes/no question formation 283 8.2.2 Wh questions and wh movement 286 8.2.3 Relative clauses and wh movement 290 8.2.4 Commands 291 8.2.5 Passive 292 8.2.6 Tag questions and dialect 293 8.2.7 Main and subordinate clauses 294 8.2.8 Empty constituents 296 8.2.9 Grammatical change 297 8.3 Lexicalized phrases and clauses 299 301 Glossary 303 Further reading 307 Answers to exercises 309 Index 360