Bibliography Those books marked with an asterisk * should be suitable for class use in schools and further education, but most textbooks and reference grammars are intended either for students in higher education or for foreign learners. Reference grammars 1. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. and Svartvik, J., A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (Longman, 1985). (The standard and most comprehensive grammar of contemporary English. 2. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. and Svartvik, J., A Grammar of Contemporary English (Longman, 1972). (The smaller, but still comprehensive grammar from which (1) was developed. 3. *Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S., A University Grammar of English (Longman, 1973). (A handy reference grammar, based on (2).) 4. *Leech, G. and Svartvik, J., A Communicative Grammar of English (Longman, 1975). (Focuses on the uses of grammar, also based on (2).) 5. van Ek, J. and Robat. N., The Student's Grammar of English (Blackwell, 1984). 6. Palmer, F., Grammar (Penguin, 1971). (A good readable introduction to the subject.) Descriptive grammars 7. *Leech, G., Deuchar, M. and Hoogenraad, R., English Grammar for Today (Macmillan, 1982). 271
272 BIBLIOGRAPHY (A textbook on English grammar and its applications, intended for use in schools as well as colleges and universities.) 8. Halliday, M. A. K., An Introduction to Functional Grammar (Arnold, 1985). 9. Huddleston, R., Introduction to the Grammar of English (Cambridge University Press, 1984). 10. Young, D. J., The Structure of English Clauses (Hutchinson, 1980). 11. Brown, E. K. and Miller, J. E., Syntax: A Linguistic Introduction to Sentence Structure (Hutchinson, 1980).
Index Major page references are in bold type abstract 1, 2 abstract noun 29 actional process 11, 13, 15, 139 active voice 117-21 actor 16, 119, 127-9 adding clause 194 adjective 22, 37-44, 172; see participial -, adjective clause 197 adjective phrase 70 adjunct 46 adverb 45-7, 173; see circumstance -, degree -, modal -, semi-negative -, sentenceadverb particle 137 adverb phrase 70 adverbial 21, 204--6; seecomplement, peripheral - adverbial clause 67, 197-9, 200 adverbial complement 22, 133--8 affected 16, 20, 127-30 affix 7 agent 119 agentive phrase 119 agreement 128 apposition 169-71, 192-3, 264 appositive clause 192, 264 article; see definite -, indefinite - aspect 113-17; see perfect-, progressive - attribute 16, 37 auxiliary verb 32, 85, 92, 93 auxiliary verb (be) 95-6 auxiliary verb (do) 98-103 auxiliary verb (have) 96-8 auxiliary verb (modal); see modal auxiliary verb base form 31, 33 behavioural process 16 beneficiary 146 binder 68 bound morpheme 7 bracketing 218--19, 221, 222-3 cardinal number 75 case 60-1; see objective-, possessive -, subjective - catenative verb 109, 110, 123, 174 circumstance 12, 13, 45, 69 circumstance adverb 46 class; see open-, closedclause 17-23, Cbs 6-9 passim; see adding -, adjective -, adverbial -, appositive -, comparative -, complex -, constituent -, derived -, embedded -, intransitive -, kernel -, main -, non-finite -, relative -, noun -, prepositional -, quoted -, quoting -, reduced relative -, relative -, relational -, reported -, reporting -, subordinate -, superordinate -, transitive -, verbless - clause structure 21 273
274 INDEX clause structure (diagramming) 222-6 clause-complex 186, 191, 200, 231, Ch 9 passim clause-complex (spoken English) 239-42 cleft sentence 214--16 closed class 25 code 69 cognitive process 16 collocate 261 common gender 56 comparative clause 199 comparative (degree) 42-4,46,199 comparison 43 complement 50; see adverbial -, intensive -, object - complex clause Ch 8 passim complex phrase Ch 7 passim complex preposition 49, 52 complex sentence 233 compound sentence 233 compound word 41, 57 compound-complex sentence 233 concept 2 concrete 1, 2 concrete noun 29 conjunct 46 conjunction 64-8; see coordinating -, subordinating - constituent 10, 49 constituent clause 131 constituent function 138-42 constituent phrase 132 contrastive stress 214 coordinating conjunction 64--6 coordination 144, 164--9 correlative conjunction 199 count noun 28, 29 declarative mood 99, 125, 201 definite 74 definite article 61 degree; see comparative-, superlative - degree adverb 46 deictic/deixis 74 delayed subject 140, 207-8 deletion 166, 261 deleti.on of be 85 demonstrative pronoun 62 derivation 126 derivational morpheme 6 derived clause 156, 200-17 determiner 44, 61, 62, 71, 72, 74 diagramming clause structure 222-6 diagramming phrase structure 217-22 diagramming sentence structure 265-70 dialogue 259, 262 direct object 144--7 direct speech 189, 190, 200-3 disjunct 46 ditransitive 147 dummy-operator 101 dummy subject 89, 140, 207, 208 dynamic verb 113 embedded clause 67 embedding 79, 81, 196, 199, 229 emphasis 102 encoding 11 end-focus/end-weighting 208, 215,217 exclamative mood 126 existential there 140, 207 extraposition 185, 193, 208-10 feminine gender 55 finite verb 32-3 foreground 40 form-class 22, 41 free morpheme 7 function 22, 41 function word 25 function word deletion 72 functional 27 future 32, 92 game 2 gender 54--60; see common -, feminine -, grammatical -, masculine -, natural -, neuter - generic reference 56
INDEX 275 gradable 41, 46, 88 grammar 2, 3 grammatical gender 55 head word 69-71 hierarchy 79 hypothesis 2, 10 idiom 138 immediate constituent 132 imperative mood 126, 201-2 impersonal 208 impersonal pronoun 55 indefinite 74 indefinite article 61 indirect object 144-7 indirect (reported) speech 188, 189,203--4 infinitive 33-4 inflectional morpheme 6 information 236 information structure 214-17 -ing participle (=present participle) 34, 84 intensive complement (of subject) 22, 37, 130-1 intensive complement (of object) 147-8 interior monologue 245, 246, 258-61 interpersonal function 125 interrogative mood 99, 125, 126, 200-1 intonation 4 intransitive 12 intransitive clause 139 invariable noun 30 irregular plural 29 irregular verb 31, 34, 35 kernel clause 99, Ch 6, 229 kernel clause patterns 148 labelled bracketing 218 language 1-2 lexical item 4 lexical unit 129, 137 lexical word 25, 48 linear (slot-and-filler) analysis 218-24 lister 66 main clause 67, 189, 199 major sentence 233 man!-man 56-7 marked 13 masculine 55 masculine bias 55-60 mass noun 28, 29 meaning 9-10, 21 medium 2 mental process 11, 13, 15-16, 188 metaphor 3 minor sentence 233, 244, 260 modal adverb 103 modal auxiliary 31, 103-9 modal auxiliary verb 31 modality 103 modes of writing 258-61 modifier 38, 46; see pre- -, post- monotransitive 147 mood 125-6, 200-3, 233; see declarative -, exclamative - imperative -, interrogative :_ morpheme 6-7, 28, 31; see bound -, derivational -, free -, lexicalmulti-word verb 137 narrative 258-9 natural gender 55 negative 62, 101-2 neuter gender 55 new information 214, 236 node 219 non-count noun 28 non-finite clause 122, 141-2, 158-61, 178-87 non-finite verb 33-5, 81--4 non-finite verb phrase 121-3 non-restrictive relative clause 180, 194-7, 210 norm 234 noun 26-30; see abstract -, concrete -, count -, invariable -, mass -, non-count -, proper-
276 INDEX noun clause (finite) 188-94 noun clause (non-finite) 184-7 noun clause 200 noun phrase 22, 30, 38, 54, Ch 4 passim noun phrase structure (diagramming) 218-20 number 28-30, 54, 55; see cardinal -, ordinal -, singular, plural, irregular plural numeral 44, 75 object (=object complement) 21, 128-30; see direct -, indirect -, prepositional - objective 16 objective case 60 open class 25 operator-verb 99 order (clause elements) 204-7 ordinal number 75 orthography 4 parallelism 187 part of speech 26 participant 11, 13, 69 participial adjective 40-2, 122 participle 34--6; see past -, present -, -ing - particle 34, 137 passive voice 83, 85, 96, 117-21, 213-14 past participle 34, 83 past perfect tense 115 past perfect progressive tense 116 past progressive tense 115 past tense 1, 31, 92-5, 259 perception 11 perceptive process 16 perfect aspect 97, 114-15 peripheral adverbial 134--6 person 33, 54-5 personal pronoun 60 phase; see predicators in phase phrasal verb 137-8 phrase 3, 9, 10; see adjective-, adverb -, constituent -, noun -, possessive -, prepositional -,verbphrase-complex 164-9, 172, 200 pitch 236 plural 28, 55 possessive case 60, 71 possessive phrase 71, 74--5 possessive pronoun 61 post-modifier (=post-head modifier) 76-8 pre-determiner 75 pre-modifier (=pre-head modifier) 72, 73--6 predicate 36--7, 193, 204 predicator 21, 30, 37 predicators in phase 123, 141-2, 173-4, 185 prefix 7 preposition 49-52; see complex -,simpleprepositional clause 142, 160-1, 178-81, 193 prepositional object 186, 188 prepositional phrase 49, Ch 4 passim prepositional phrase structure (diagramming) 218-20 prepositional verb 137-8 present participle 34, 84 present perfect tense 115 present perfect progressive tense 116 present progressive tense 115 present tense 31, 92-5, 259 pro-word 52 process 11, 13, 30, 69; see behavioural -, cognitive -, mental -, perceptive -, relational -, verbal - progressive aspect 85, 96, 113-14 prominence 214--17 pronoun 52-64; see demonstrative -, impersonal -, personal -, possessive - reflexive -, relative - proper noun 28, 52, 70 proposition 9, 19, 99, 125 pseudo-cleft sentence 216--17
INDEX 277 punctuation 4 purpose (NonfCl of ~) 182 qualifier (=post-modifier) 76-8 question 99-101 quoted clause 190-1 quoted speech 200-3 quoting clause 190-1 rank (rank scale) 10, 17, 19, 229 recipient 146 recursive 87, 157 reduced relative clause 83, 159, 183-4 referent 18, 52, 54, 260 reflexive pronoun 61 regular verb 31, 34, 35 relational clause 139 relational process 16 relational verb 130 relative clause 63, 83, 162-4, 200; see non-restrictive ~, reduced ~, restrictive ~ relative pronoun 62, 63, 83 reported (indirect) speech 188, 189,203--4 reported clause 188-92, 209 reporting clause 188-92, 209 reporting verb 188 restrictive relative clause 159, 162-3 role 16, 21, 127 rule 2 semantic 21, 27 semi-auxiliary verb 85, 96, 97, 109-13 semi-negative adverb 102 sentence 3, 8, 231, Ch 9 passim; see cleft ~, complex ~, compound ~, compoundcomplex~, major~, minor~, pseudo-cleft ~, simple ~ sentence adverb 46 sentence as stylistic unit 231 sentence structure diagramming 265-70 simple past tense 31, 93 simple preposition 49, 52 simple present tense 31, 93 simple sentence 17, 233 singular 28, 54 slot-and-filler analysis see linear analysis speech 1, 2; see direct ~, indirect ~, quoted ~, reported ~ split infinitive 34 stative verb 113 stream of consciousness see interior monologue stress 236; see contrastive ~, tonic~ string 3 structure 3 style Ch 9 passim stylistics 239 subject 21, 127-8, 204; see delayed ~, dummy ~ subjective case 60 subjunctive 93 subordinate 67, 79, 199, 229 subordinate clause (finite) 188-200 subordinate clause (non-finite) see non-finite clause subordinating conjunction 67, 68 subordination 157 suffix 6, 28, 31, 34, 42, 57, 61, 62 superlative (degree) 43 superordinate clause 200, 230 syllable 7 syntax 3 system 2 tag-question 101 tense 31-3; see future, past ~, present ~, past perfect ~, past progressive ~, present perfect ~, present progressive ~, past perfect progressive ~, present perfect progressive ~, simple past ~, simple present ~ terminology 3, 228, 229 theme/thematic 198, 204-5, 260 thou 55 tone-unit 236-8, 240-2
278 INDEX tonic stress 237 tonic syllable 236 traditional grammar 233 transformation 117, 126 transitive 12 transitive clause 139 tree-diagram 157, 218, 220, 221-2, 225, 226 unmarked 117, 204 verb 1, 30-7; see auxiliary~, catenative ~, dynamic ~, finite ~, irregular ~, multi-word ~, non-finite ~, operator ~, phrasal ~, prepositional ~, regular ~, relational ~, reporting ~, semi-auxiliary ~, stative ~ verb phrase 70, Ch 5 passim, 174-7 verb phrase structure (diagramming) 220-2 verb-complex 176 verbal process 11, 13, 16, 188 verbless clause 180-1, 210 vocative 201 voice 117-21; see active~, passive~ wh-interrogative 201 wh-question 100 word 3, 4; see compound~, function ~, head ~, lexical ~ word class 26 word order 9 word order (in indirect speech) 203-4 word order (in verb phrase) 116 word-complex 164, 200 writing 1, 2 yes/no interrogative (question) 100, 200, 201 yes/no question 100