Contents Preface for Students: Using This Book iii Preface for Teachers vi PART 1 The Writing Process 1 1 Assessing the Writing Situation 2 a Understanding how writing happens 2 b Analyzing the writing situation 4 c Discovering and limiting a subject 7 d Defining a purpose 10 e Considering the audience 12 2 Developing and Shaping Ideas 18 a Discovering ideas 18 b Developing a thesis 29 c Organizing ideas 35 SAMPLE ESSAY 45 3 Drafting and Revising 48 a Writing the first draft 48 b Revising the first draft 52 c Examining a sample revision 57 d Editing the revised draft 60 e Preparing and proofreading the final draft 66 f SAMPLE FINAL DRAFT 67 g Giving and receiving comments 69 h Preparing a writing portfolio 72 4 Writing and Revising Paragraphs 73 a Maintaining paragraph unity 75 b Achieving paragraph coherence 80 c Developing the paragraph 93 d Writing special kinds of paragraphs 104 e Linking paragraphs in the essay 112 5 Designing Documents 113 a Designing academic papers and other documents 113 b Considering principles of design 114 xii
Contents xiii c Using the elements of design 118 d Using illustrations 122 e Considering readers with vision loss 127 PART 2 Reading and Writing in High School 129 6 Developing Academic Skills 130 a Managing your time 131 b Listening and taking notes in class 132 c Reading for comprehension 133 d Preparing for exams 137 7 Forming a Critical Perspective 139 a Using techniques of critical reading 141 b Developing a critical response 147 c Listening critically 154 d Viewing images critically 155 8 Writing in Academic Situations 164 a Writing in response to texts 164 b Determining purpose 167 c Analyzing audience 168 d Choosing structure and content 169 e Using academic language 170 f Examining sample critical responses 173 9 SAMPLE CRITIQUE OF A TEXT 174 SAMPLE CRITIQUE OF AN IMAGE 176 Reading Arguments Critically 179 a Recognizing the elements of argument 179 b Testing claims 181 c Weighing evidence 184 d Discovering assumptions 188 e Watching language, hearing tone 189 f Judging reasonableness 189 g Recognizing fallacies 192 10 Writing an Argument 199 a Finding a subject 199 b Conceiving a thesis statement 200 c Analyzing your purpose and your audience 201 d Using reason 202 e Using evidence 207
xiv Contents f Reaching your readers 208 g Organizing your argument 212 h Revising your argument 213 i SAMPLE ARGUMENT 214 11 Reading and Using Visual Arguments 219 a Reading visual arguments critically 219 b Using visual arguments effectively 226 PART 3 Grammatical Sentences 231 12 Understanding Sentence Grammar 232 a Understanding the basic sentence 233 b Expanding the basic sentence with single words 241 c Expanding the basic sentence with word groups 244 d Compounding words, phrases, and clauses 258 e Changing the usual word order 262 f Classifying sentences 264 13 Case of Nouns and Pronouns 266 a Compound subjects and complements 268 b Compound objects 269 c We or us with a noun 269 d Appositives 269 e Pronoun after than or as in a comparison 270 f Subjects and objects of infinitives 270 g Who vs. whom 271 h Case before a gerund 273 14 Verbs 274 Verb Forms 274 a Regular and irregular verbs 277 b Sit and set; lie and lay; rise and raise 280 c Omitted -s and -ed endings 281 d Helping verbs 282 e Verb plus gerund or infinitive 287 f Verb plus particle 289 Tense 291 g Appropriate tense for meaning 292 h Sequence of tenses 294 Mood 298 i Subjunctive verb forms 298 Voice 300 j Active vs. passive voice 301
Contents xv 15 Agreement 303 a Agreement between subject and verb 303 b Agreement between pronoun and antecedent 311 16 Adjectives and Adverbs 317 a Adjectives only with nouns and pronouns 318 b Adjectives after linking verbs 319 c Adjectives with objects; adverbs with verbs 319 d Comparative and superlative forms 320 e Double negatives 322 f Overuse of nouns as modifiers 323 g Present and past participles as adjectives 323 h A, an, the, and other determiners 324 PART 4 Clear Sentences 331 17 Sentence Fragments 332 a Tests for sentence completeness, revision of fragments 332 b Subordinate clause 336 c Verbal or prepositional phrase 336 d Other fragments 337 e Acceptable uses of incomplete sentences 339 18 Comma Splices and Fused Sentences 340 Comma Splices 342 a Main clauses not joined by coordinating conjunction 342 b Main clauses related by a conjunctive adverb or transitional expression 344 Fused Sentences 345 c Main clauses with no conjunction or punctuation 345 19 Pronoun Reference 347 a Clear reference to one antecedent 348 b Clear placement of pronoun and antecedent 349 c Reference to specific antecedent 350 d Indefinite use of you 352 e Clear use of it 352 f Appropriate who, which, that 352 20 Shifts 354 a Person and number 355 b Tense and mood 357
xvi Contents c Subject and voice 358 d Indirect and direct quotations and questions 359 21 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers 361 Misplaced Modifiers 361 a Clear placement of modifiers 361 b Limiting modifiers 363 c Squinting modifiers 363 d Separation of subjects, verbs, and objects 364 e Separation of parts of infinitives or verb phrases 364 f Position of adverbs 366 g Order of adjectives 367 Dangling Modifiers 291 h Dangling modifiers 368 22 Mixed and Incomplete Sentences 371 Mixed Sentences 371 a Mixed grammar 371 b Mixed meaning (faulty predication) 373 Incomplete Sentences 368 c Compound constructions 375 d Comparisons 376 e Careless omissions 376 PART 5 Effective Sentences 379 23 Emphasizing Ideas 380 a Using subjects and verbs effectively 380 b Using sentence beginnings and endings 382 c Arranging parallel elements effectively 385 d Repeating ideas 386 e Separating ideas 387 f Being concise 388 24 Using Coordination and Subordination 390 a Coordinating to relate equal ideas 390 b Subordinating to distinguish main ideas 393 c Choosing clear connectors 399 25 Using Parallelism 400 a Using parallelism for coordinate elements 401 b Using parallelism to increase coherence 405
Contents xvii 26 Achieving Variety 407 a Varying sentence length and structure 408 b Varying sentence beginnings 410 c Inverting the normal word order 413 d Mixing types of sentences 413 PART 6 Punctuation 417 Chart 413 End Punctuation 420 a The period 420 b The question mark 421 c The exclamation point 422 The Comma 424 a Main clauses linked by coordinating conjunctions 424 b Introductory elements 427 c Nonessential elements 429 d Absolute phrases 434 e Phrases expressing contrast 434 f Series and coordinate adjectives 435 g Dates, addresses, place names, long numbers 437 h With quotations 438 i To prevent misreading 440 j Misuse and overuse 441 The Semicolon 445 a Main clauses not joined by a coordinating conjunction 447 b Main clauses related by a conjunctive adverb or transitional expression 448 c Main clauses that are long or contain commas 450 d Series items that are long or contain commas 450 e Misuse and overuse 451 The Apostrophe 453 a Possession 455 b Misuses with noun plurals, verbs, and personal pronouns 457 c Contractions 458 d Plurals of abbreviations, dates, and words or characters named as words 460
xviii Contents 31 Quotation Marks 461 Chart 462 a Direct quotations 461 b Quotation within a quotation 463 c Dialog 464 d Titles of songs, short stories, etc. 465 e Words used in a special sense 466 f Overuse 466 g Placement with other punctuation marks 467 32 Other Punctuation Marks 469 a The colon 469 b The dash 472 c Parentheses 474 d Brackets 476 e The ellipsis mark 477 f The slash 480 PART 7 Mechanics 483 33 Capitals 484 a First word of a sentence 484 b Titles of works 485 c Pronoun I and interjection O 486 d Proper nouns and adjectives 486 e Titles before proper names 488 f Misuses of capitals 488 34 Italics or Underlining 490 a Titles of books and periodicals 490 b Names of ships, aircraft, spacecraft, trains 492 c Foreign words and phrases 492 d Words, letters, and numbers named as words 492 e For emphasis 492 f In online communication 493 35 Abbreviations 494 a Titles before and after proper names 494 b Familiar abbreviations and acronyms 495 c BC, BCE, AD, CE, AM, PM, no., and $ 495 d Latin abbreviations 496 e Inc., Bros., Co., and & 496
Contents xix f Misuse with units of measurement, geographical names, and so on 496 36 Numbers 498 a Numerals vs. words 498 b For dates, addresses, etc. 499 c Beginning sentences 500 PART 8 Effective Words 503 37 Using Appropriate Language 504 a Revising nonstandard dialect 505 b Revising shortcuts of online communication 506 c Using slang only when appropriate 506 d Using colloquial language only when appropriate 507 e Using regionalisms only when appropriate 508 f Revising neologisms 508 g Using technical words with care 508 h Revising indirect or pretentious writing 508 i Revising sexist and other biased language 509 38 Using Exact Language 513 a Using a dictionary and a thesaurus 514 b Using the right word for your meaning 516 c Balancing the abstract and concrete, the general and specific 518 d Using idioms 519 e Using figurative language 522 f Using fresh expressions 524 39 Writing Concisely 525 a Focusing on subject and verb 526 b Cutting or shortening empty words and phrases 527 c Cutting unnecessary repetition 529 d Reducing clauses to phrases, phrases to single words 530 e Revising there is, here is, and it is constructions 531 f Combining sentences 531 g Rewriting jargon 531 40 Spelling and the Hyphen 533 a Recognizing typical spelling problems 533 b Following spelling rules 536 c Developing spelling skills 540 d Using the hyphen to form or divide words 546
xx Contents PART 9 Research Writing 549 41 Planning a Research Project 550 a Starting out 550 b Keeping a research journal 551 c Finding a researchable subject and question 552 d Developing a research strategy 554 e Making a working, annotated bibliography 557 42 Finding Sources 560 a Starting with your library s Web site 560 b Searching electronically 561 c Finding reference works 564 d Finding books 564 e Finding periodicals 565 f Finding sources on the Web 569 g Finding other online sources 572 h Finding government publications 574 i Finding images, audio, and video 574 j Generating your own sources 576 43 Working with Sources 579 a Evaluating sources 580 b Synthesizing sources 592 c Gathering information from sources 596 d Using summary, paraphrase, and quotation 597 e Integrating sources into your text 601 44 Avoiding Plagiarism and Documenting Sources 607 a Committing and detecting plagiarism on the Internet 609 b Knowing what you need not acknowledge 609 c Knowing what you must acknowledge 610 d Acknowledging online sources 612 e Documenting sources 614 45 Writing the Paper 615 a Focusing and organizing the paper 615 b Drafting, revising, and formatting the paper 617 46 Using MLA Documentation and Format 619 a USING MLA IN-TEXT CITATIONS 619 b PREPARING THE MLA LIST OF WORKS CITED 628 c USING MLA DOCUMENT FORMAT 664
Contents xxi 47 Two Research Papers in MLA Style 666 THE FALSE PROMISE OF GREEN CONSUMERISM 668 ANNIE DILLARD S HEALING VISION 681 PART 10 Writing in the Academic Disciplines 687 48 Working with the Goals and Requirements of the Disciplines 688 a Using methods and evidence 688 b Understanding writing assignments 689 c Using tools and language 689 d Following styles for source citations and document format 690 49 Reading and Writing About Literature 691 a Using the methods and evidence of literary analysis 691 b Understanding writing assignments in literature 703 c Using the tools and language of literary analysis 704 d Citing sources and formatting documents in writing about literature 705 e Drafting and revising a literary analysis 705 SAMPLE ANALYSIS OF A SHORT STORY 710 f Writing about fiction, poetry, and drama 711 SAMPLE ANALYSIS OF A POEM 714 SAMPLE ANALYSIS OF A PLAY 717 50 Writing in Other Humanities 719 a Using the methods and evidence of the humanities 719 b Understanding writing assignments in the humanities 720 c Using the tools and language of the humanities 720 d CITING SOURCES IN CHICAGO STYLE 724 51 Writing in the Social Sciences 736 a Using the methods and evidence of the social sciences 736 b Understanding writing assignments in the social sciences 737 c Using the tools and language of the social sciences 738 d CITING SOURCES IN APA STYLE 741 e FORMATTING DOCUMENTS IN APA STYLE 761 f SAMPLE SOCIAL SCIENCE PAPER 764 52 Writing in the Natural and Applied Sciences 767 a Using the methods and evidence of the sciences 768 b Understanding writing assignments in the sciences 768 c Using the tools and language of the sciences 769 d CITING SOURCES IN CSE STYLE 773 e SAMPLE SCIENCE PAPER 779
xxii Contents PART 11 Special Writing Situations 783 53 Essay Examinations 784 a Preparing for an essay examination 784 b Planning your time and your answer 785 c Starting the essay 787 d Developing the essay 787 SAMPLE ESSAY EXAMS 788 e Rereading the essay 789 54 Writing Online 790 a Writing effective e-mail 790 b Collaborating online 793 c Creating effective Web compositions 796 55 Public Writing 802 a Writing business letters and memos 803 SAMPLE LETTER AND MEMO 804, 807 b Writing a job application 809 SAMPLE LETTER AND RÉSUMÉS 809, 811 12 c Writing business reports and proposals 811 SAMPLE REPORT AND PROPOSAL 813, 814 d Writing for community work 814 SAMPLE FLYER, NEWSLETTER, AND BROCHURE 815 17 56 Oral Presentations 818 a Writing and speaking 818 b Considering purpose and audience 818 c Organizing the presentation 820 d Delivering the presentation 821 57 Applying to College 826 a Preparing for the SAT and ACT exams 827 b Preparing for the AP English exams 839 c Writing a college-application essay 842 SAMPLE COLLEGE APPLICATION ESSAY 843 Glossary of Usage 845 Glossary of Terms 862 Index 000 Useful Lists and Summaries 000 CULTURE LANGUAGE Guide 000 Editing Symbols 000