Risk Management in the Outdoors A whole-of-organisation approach for education, sport and recreation Risk Management in the Outdoors is essential reading for students and practitioners involved in outdoor education, sport, recreation and tourism. Written by an expert author team, it explores the value of the outdoors in a society that is increasingly risk-averse, but at the same time pushes the commodification of high risk and extreme activities. Drawing upon the risk management process from the International Standard on Risk Management, ISO 31000, this text adopts a whole-oforganisation approach to risk management. It covers: organisational sustainability legal issues program design activities severe weather scenarios incident analysis. Risk Management in the Outdoors provides direction on how best to manage the downside of risk taking while maximising the potential benefits. Each chapter contains focus questions, case studies, action points for practitioners, plus further questions and activities. Tracey J. Dickson is Associate Professor of Tourism Management in the Faculty of Business and Government, University of Canberra. Tonia L. Gray is Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong. in this web service
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Risk Management in the Outdoors A whole-of-organisation approach for education, sport and recreation Edited by Tracey J. Dickson and Tonia L. Gray in this web service
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Tokyo, Mexico City 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Published in the United States of America by, New York Information on this title: /9780521152310 C 2012 This publication is copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of. First published 2012 Cover design by Eggplant Communications Typeset by Aptara Printed in China by Printplus Co. Ltd. A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library National Library of Australia Cataloguing in Publication data Dickson, Tracey J. Risk management in the outdoors : a whole of organisation approach for education, sport and recreation / Tracey J Dickson, Tonia Gray. 9780521152310 (pbk.) Risk management Australia. Outdoor recreation Law and legislation Australia. Recreation Law and legislation Australia. Gray, Tonia L. 346.94032 ISBN 978-0-521-15231-0 Paperback Reproduction and communication for educational purposes The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (theact) allowsamaximumof one chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act. For details of the CAL licence for educational institutions contact: Copyright Agency Limited Level 15, 233 Castlereagh Street Sydney NSW 2000 Telephone: (02) 9394 7600 Facsimile: (02) 9394 7601 E-mail: info@copyright.com.au has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. in this web service
Never forget that life can only be nobly inspired and rightly lived if you take it bravely and gallantly, as a splendid adventure in which you are setting out into an unknown country, to face many a danger, to meet many a joy, to find many a comrade, to win and lose many a battle. Annie Besant, 1847 1933 To all those who inspire adventure, joy and friendship through activities in the outdoors. in this web service
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Contents... List of tables List of figures List of contributors Preface page xi xiii xiv xvii 1 An introduction to risk, adventure and risk management 1 Tracey J. Dickson Focus questions 1 Introduction 2 Risk, adventure and the outdoors 3 Why adventure and the outdoors? 4 A whole-of-organisation approach to risk management 7 Philosophy 9 People, equipment and environment 9 Social and political context 9 Child protection and the nanny state 10 The risk management process 13 Expanding the steps in the risk management process 17 Communicate and consult and monitor and review 21 Conclusion 21 References 21 2 Organisational sustainability and risk management 25 Brian Weir & Tracey J. Dickson Focus questions 25 Introduction: what is sustainability? 25 Organisational sustainability and risk management 28 What is sustainability in an organisational sense? 29 How will we know our organisation is sustainable? 34 Some strategies to assist 36 Points for action for practitioners 39 References and further resources 40 vii in this web service
viii Contents 3 The legal context for outdoor activities and programs 43 Lyn Ainsworth & Jon Heshka Focus questions 43 Introduction 44 The concept of reasonableness 45 Risk management standard AS/NZS/ISO 31000: 2009 46 Work health and safety: statutory liability 47 Key operational areas of responsibility 49 Special characteristics of participants 50 Obligations 51 Reasonably practicable 54 Penalties 55 Relationship with civil liability 55 Law of negligence: breach of duty of care 55 Some other legal issues to consider 58 Using the law to mitigate risk: civil liabilities legislation 59 Recreational activities and dangerous recreational activities 60 Risk management when something goes wrong 62 Recent cases 62 Points for action for practitioners 65 References and further resources 66 4 The organisational context of risk management 69 Tracey J. Dickson & Anne Terwiel Focus questions 69 Introduction 70 Strategic management: an overview 72 Accreditations and reviews 76 Knowledge management and knowledge transfer 78 Moving beyond strategic management 78 Leadership and power 82 Training, development and education 86 Conclusion 87 Points for action for practitioners 88 References and further resources 89 5 The real physical risks: putting it into perspective 91 Tracey J. Dickson Focus questions 91 Introduction 92 Research on incidents in outdoor, adventure and sporting activities 95 Overview of the available research 109 Conclusion 111 Points for action for practitioners 111 References and further resources 112 6 Program design and activity selection 116 Eric Brymer & Tonia L. Gray Focus questions 116 Introduction 117 in this web service
Contents ix Contextualising risk 118 Holistic program design 122 Programs and activity design 123 Activity standards and industry norms 124 Staff skills and qualifications 126 Conclusion 127 Points for action for practitioners 128 References and further resources 129 7 Program evaluation 132 ToniaL.Gray&JamesT.Neill Focus questions 132 Introduction 133 Historical dimensions of program evaluation 135 Aspects of evaluation 135 What are the main approaches to program evaluation? 137 What steps are involved in program evaluation? 141 Common practices in program evaluation 145 Conclusion 145 Points for action for practitioners 146 References and further resources 146 8 Risk communication 150 Clare Dallat Focus questions 150 Introduction 151 Research insights 157 Practical applications for risk communicators 158 Conclusion 161 Points for action for practitioners 161 References and further resources 162 9 Technology, risk and outdoor programming 164 James T. Neill & Tonia L. Gray Focus questions 164 Introduction 168 What is technology? 169 Reasons for using technology in the outdoors 171 Types of technology in outdoor programming 173 Level of technology in outdoor programming 173 Technology, risk and safety 174 Technology becoming passé 177 Audio and video availability on mobile devices 178 Location tracking 178 Conclusion 179 References and further resources 179 10 Severe weather 183 Paul Colagiuri Focus questions 183 Introduction 184 in this web service
x Contents Severe weather events and the outdoor industry 186 Managing risks associated with severe weather 187 Severe weather events 191 Points for action for practitioners 200 References and further resources 202 11 Learning from injury surveillance and incident analysis 204 Tracey J. Dickson Focus questions 204 Introduction 205 Are we safe? 206 Why investigate injuries and incidents? 207 Different paradigms 207 Injury surveillance 210 Accident and incident prevention 213 Gathering data 216 Environmental extremes 217 Incident and injury investigation and analysis 220 Organisational learning, learning organisations and knowledge management 223 Conclusion 224 Points for action for practitioners 224 Glossary of terms 225 References and further resources 226 Appendix: Examples of risk analyses 231 Index 238 in this web service
Tables... 1.1 Generational characteristics page 11 1.2 Steps in the risk management process 14 1.3 Risk analysis matrix 19 1.4 Risk analysis matrix: examples of acceptable and unacceptable levels of risk 20 2.1 Examples of economic, social and environmental sustainability indicators 35 3.1 Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) and safety legislation 67 4.1 Examples of different leadership scenarios 84 4.2 Potential responses of followers to types of leadership power 85 5.1 Exercise and recreation participation data for people aged 15 years and over in select activities (organised and non-organised) 2009 94 5.2 Summary measures for sports- and recreation-related injury hospitalisations 97 5.3 Injury rates (hospitalised) per 100 000 participants across selected activities, 2002 03 98 5.4 Key indicators for sports-related hospitalisations 2004 05 99 5.5 Frequency of injuries across selected sport and recreational activities 2004 05 100 5.6 Top 24 leisure/sporting activities at time of death of young people < 25 years of age: 1 July 2000 31 December 2008 103 5.7 Serious harm accidents in NZ education settings 1 July 2004 30 June 2009 106 5.8 Rate of NZ adventure and outdoor injuries resulting in serious harm and fatalities by activity 2004 09 106 5.9 Challenge ropes course incidents (1981, 1986, 1991) 108 7.1 Characteristics of qualitative and quantitative research designs in educational research 137 xi in this web service
xii List of tables 7.2 Types of measurement instruments that may be used for outdoor and experiential education research and evaluation 138 7.3 The eight LEQ-H factors and descriptions 139 7.4 Why use mixed research methods? 141 8.1 The nature of risks 154 9.1 Reasons for using technology in the outdoors 171 9.2 Technologies used in planning and conducting outdoor programs 174 9.3 Examples of low, moderate and high outdoor activities 175 9.4 Positive and negative effects of technology on positive and negative risk in outdoor programs 176 9.5 Possible approaches to one technology: podcasting in outdoor education 179 10.1 Criteriaforissuingsevereweatherwarnings 186 10.2 Examples of environmental trigger points and potential responses 190 11.1 Haddon s Matrix applied to the risk factors for road traffic crash injuries among children 209 11.2 SummaryofAbbreviatedInjuryScale (AIS) 213 11.3 ExtractfromtheNewZealandIncidentSeverityScale 213 11.4 Injuryriskfactorsincontactsports 215 11.5 Potentialcausesofaccidentsinoutdoorpursuits 216 11.6 Datacollection 217 11.7 Riskfactorsforexertionalheatillnesses 219 11.8 Riskfactorsinhypothermia 219 in this web service
Figures... 1.1 Different uses of outdoor activities page 6 1.2 The three-legged risk management stool 8 1.3 Risk management process adapted from Standards Australia and Standards New Zealand (2009) 13 1.4 Examples of impacts upon an objective for a sporting event 18 2.1 A simple model of sustainability 27 2.2 Three-pillar model of sustainability 29 2.3 Planning for sustainability at the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games 37 3.1 Risk management framework AS/NZ/ISO 31000 Clause 4 47 4.1 Strategic management 73 4.2 Accreditation and review pyramid 76 6.1 The dramaturgy wave 123 7.1 Three-stage experiential learning cycle and program evaluation cycle 134 7.2 Continuum of motivation for research in evaluation 136 9.1 A Personal Locator Beacon 166 9.2 Low to High technology spectrum 168 9.3 Overdependency on technology 172 9.4 Example of outdoor fatality involving equipment 175 9.5 Technology and footwear 177 10.1 Managingsevereweatherrisksintheoutdoors 188 10.2 Sampledetailedseverethunderstormwarning 194 10.3 Sampleriverheightplot 197 10.4 Samplebushfiretriggerpointandresponseplan 201 11.1 InjuryIcebergModel 210 11.2 HierarchyofOHShazardcontrols 214 xiii in this web service
Contributors... Lyn Ainsworth, BA, GradDipEd, LLB, GradDipMgt (Arts), MStratHRM, is a legal practitioner and has been involved in secondary and tertiary education in the areas of law, workplace safety and human resource management. She is currently a member of the Federal and State Councils of Australian Business Industrial and a member of a number of committees of National Disability Services. Lyn has extensive experience as an executive manager and company secretary, responsible for governance and risk management in the not-forprofit sector, including disability services and independent education. She has served on the Boards and Management Committees of local sporting and cultural organisations and is currently a Director of Oakhill College, a large independent Catholic College. Eric Brymer, BSc (Hons), MSc, GradCertHEd, GradDipBA, PhD, DipOutdoorRec, is a lecturer in the School of Human Movement at Queensland University of Technology. He has worked as a facility manager and organisational consultant and has also designedandfacilitatedschool,organisational, recreational, therapeutic and sport performance programs in the US, Europe, UK, Asia and Australia. He is a past executive officer of the Outdoor Recreation Industry Council and a founding member and chief executive officer of the Asian Adventure Advisory. He has a variety of recreational coaching qualifications. Paul Colagiuri is the General Manager for Camp Somerset and Encompass Outdoors in Sydney and runs outdoor programs for over 10 000 school students every year, across a broad range of environments and conditions. Paul is an accreditation assessor for ORIC, he sits on the Board of the Australian Camps Association and is the Australian representative for the International Camping Fellowship. xiv in this web service
List of contributors xv Clare Dallat, BA (Hons), MSc (Risk mgmt), is Director of Programs and Risk Management at The Outdoor Education Group (OEG), based in Eildon, Victoria. She has been a practitioner of outdoor education for over 15 years. Tracey J. Dickson, BCom,GradDipEd,MEd,MCom,PhD,DipOutdoorRec, is Associate Professor in tourism management at the University of Canberra. Her research interests in areas such as risk management, injury prevention, sport event volunteer management and alpine tourism have been influenced by her passion for alpine areas, working in outdoor education for more than 10 years and her involvement on voluntary boards in sport and recreation. Tracey has been a qualified instructor in a wide range of outdoor activities from archery to telemark skiing and is an assessor for the ORIC Accreditation program. Tonia L. Gray, BEd (Distinction), MA, PhD, is Associate Professor in Outdoor, Health and Physical Education at the University of Wollongong. She is the past editor of the Australian Journal of Outdoor Education (AJOE) and currently a review board member for the Journal of Experiential Education (JEE). Tonia s research interests include experiential learning in a variety of educational settings, risk taking and management, understanding the motivations and personalities of extreme sports participants, facilitation and leadership in adventure education and ecopsychology. She has been a practitioner of outdoor education for nearly three decades. Jon Heshka, BSc, BA, BEd, MEd, LLM, is Associate Professor specialising in sports law and adventure studies at Thompson Rivers University in Kamloops, British Columbia, and is a visiting lecturer at two universities in the UK. He has been a senior instructor with Outward Bound, a climbing guide, he trained and coordinated search and rescue for the Ministry of Attorney General/Justice Institute of BC, worked in senior management with Petzl America and has climbed and led expeditions around the world from Alaska to Argentina and many points in-between. James T. Neill, BSc, BSc (Hons), PhD, is Assistant Professor at the Centre for Applied Psychology at the University of Canberra. His expertise and interests are in outdoor education, experiential learning, research methods and open academia. James previously worked as an instructor and research coordinator for Outward Bound Australia. James is a past editor and current reviewer of the Australian Journal of Outdoor Education (AJOE). Anne Terwiel, PDP, GradDipBA, MBA, is Lecturer at Thompson Rivers University, specialising in sport event management, resort management, business operations, HR, leadership and marketing. Anne is an active participant in this web service
xvi List of contributors in the Canadian ski industry and is involved with the Canadian Ski Instructors Alliance, the Canadian Ski Coaches Federation and as an official for Canadian Ski Racing. She recently volunteered at the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games at the alpine ski racing venue. Brian Weir, BSc, GradDipLegStud, MPA, is a doctoral candidate in the Management Studies Discipline at the University of Canberra and his thesis focuses on policy responses to climate change in the Canberra tourism industry. Previously, Brian worked in the Australian Capital Territory government on business development, tourism policy and leading the development of nature-based tourism and visitor services in the ACT parks service. Brian has served on the boards of a number of local, regional and national tourism organisations, including Ecotourism Australia. in this web service
Preface... To Risk The person who risks nothing, does nothing, has nothing, is nothing. He may avoid suffering and sorrow, But he cannot learn, feel, change, grow or live. Only a person who risks is free. The pessimist complains about the wind; The optimist expects it to change; And the realist adjusts the sails. William Arthur Ward Undeniably, risk is part of the human experience. Risk management is a ubiquitous concern for those involved in outdoor education, sport and recreation as typically the focus has been on physical dangers. Varying degrees of danger exist within the myriad of activities undertaken in the outdoors, whether they are high physical risk activities such as rock fishing, equestrian sports or adventure racing or the more leisurely and low physical risk activities such as bird watching, dragon boat racing or simple bushwalking along a marked trail. Whatever the motivation, risk in its many forms and activities in the outdoors are inextricably linked. There is universal acceptance that we engage in risk-taking behaviours as either an innate personal reward, or as a conquest or even as a badge of peer acceptance. Risk management in the outdoors covers the broad spectrum, from high to low risk activities. This book stems from over seventeen years of Australian industry interest in the management of risks in outdoor activities documented in the local literature on the subject, drawing upon a wide array of insights and experiences from industry experts. Building on that body of work, Chapter 1 conceptualises risk in terms of a whole-of-organisation approach, moving the focus from just physical dangers, to anything that may impact on why and how people engage in outdoor activities. Individuals need places or outlets in which they can experiment xvii in this web service
xviii Preface with risk, to test their skill levels, to learn from their misfortunes or mistakes and to develop into confident and well-rounded human beings and participants in their communities. Outdoor activities in sport, outdoor education and recreation provide opportunities where this can be manifested. In keeping with the whole-of-organisation approach, Chapter 2 introduces sustainability, drawing upon the views of triple bottom line accounting, corporate social responsibility and social businesses. This provides a wider context within which organisations may situate themselves by discussing economic, social and environmental sustainability. The legal context, with particular emphasis on issues related to negligence, liability, occupational health and safety and civil liability legislation are introduced in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 considers the organisational context, discussing the role of organisational culture, insurance, finance and human resources and policies and procedures related to risk management. Chapter 5 presents data on the real physical risks, drawing on published and unpublished sources. Later parts of the book, beginning with Chapter 6, move to more practical aspects of risk management in relation to maximising the positive outcomes and minimising the negative, where program design and activity selection are considered. An overview of program evaluation and how organisations, small and large, may be able to develop a system of evaluation that explore the effectiveness of their activities and the degree to which they are achieving their program or organisational objectives is provided in Chapter 7. Chapter 8 introduces the concept of risk communication and considers how all parties in the equation may be part of the risk management solution, from participants to the media. The use of technology in education and safety and how it may contribute to desired outcomes, as well as insights into its limitations, is discussed in Chapter 9. Chapter 10 introduces risk management in the face of severe weather, including prevention, management and recovery. Finally, Chapter 11 provides insights into injury surveillance, what data could be collected and how it might be analysed in order to determine if the chosen risk management efforts are having an impact. Further, examples of risk analyses using a variation of the risk matrix are provided in the Appendix. in this web service