By:D.S. AL-fathly Under the supervision of Dr. Ahmed Othman ************************************************************* Linguistics: scientific study of language. Objective: (not subjective) there is no room for personal liking or disliking. Consistent: this means using the same methodology throughout; the same terms; the same symbols; etc. Explicit: (clear) terms used in the analysis/description should be clearly defined. Comprehensive: (complete) for example, if a linguist gives a description of 'English sounds', he must give a description of all sounds. Concrete evidence: a linguistic description should be based on proof. Phonemes: combine together to produce smallest units of meaning; [m + a + n=man]. Morphemes: combine together to produce words; [ class + room = classroom ] Words: combine to form phrases and sentences; [Bill + likes + Susan = Bill likes Susan OR Susan likes Bill ]. Phrases: which combine together to produce sentences. [The model is on the catwalk now]. Sentences: which combine together to produce discourses/texts. Phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech production and perception by human beings. Phonology: the study of sounds as units contributing to meaning [ m +a +n=man ]. Morphology: the study of internal structures of words and how they modified [ un + kind + ness = unkindness]. Syntax: is the study of how words combine to form, acceptable and grammatical sentences [ my sister + has bought + a new book = my sister has bought a new book ]. Semantics: the study of the meaning of words [lexical meaning] the meaning of sentence. Discourse: the study of units beyond the sentence boundary. and how these combine to form Descriptive linguistics: describe how language is spoken by a group of people in a speech community. Anthropological linguistics: is the study of the relations between language and culture.
Applied linguistics: is the study of applications linguistic knowledge to areas such as: foreign language teaching, speech therapy, etc. Comparative linguistics:( Comparative philology) is a branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing languages in order to establish they are historically related. Corpus linguistics: is the study of language as expressed in samples (corpora) or '' real world'' texts. Historical linguistics:(diachronic linguistics) is the study of language change. psycholinguistics or psychology of languages: is the study of the psychological factor that enable human to learn, use and understand languages. Sociolinguistics: is the study of language use in society. Speech pathology: is the study of disorders that effect a person's speech, language, voice disorders. Example: stuttering and lisping. Stutter: to repeat the first sound of a word several times when you talk. Lisp: to pronounce 's' and 'z' sounds like 'th'. Articulatory phonetics: describes how speech sounds [ vowels and consonants ]are produced or articulated in various parts of the mouth and throat. Acoustic phonetics: investigates how speech sounds are transmitted as vibrations in the air ( from the speaker's mouth to the hearer's ear). Auditory phonetics: is the study of how speech sounds are received by the hearer. Language: is the way to communication between human beings, either written or spoken. Accent: is a manner of pronouncing a certain language. the same word and meaning but different pronunciation. Dialect: is a form/variety of a certain language which differs in vocabulary, syntax, and morphology, as well as pronunciation. different word but same meaning. Received Pronunciation (RP): is a form of pronunciation of the English language. It is a pronunciation of British English, originally used by the upper class of southeastern England.
Unit 2 definitions Consonant: is a speech sound K,B,D,R,Z...] that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. [ Vowel: is defined in phonetics as a sound in a spoken language produced with no closure of the air in the vocal tract. And it is defined in phonology as a sound that forms the peak of a syllable. [ a,e,o,i,u] Sound: is what you hear with your ears for instance when you listen to someone speaking.[ /ð/ /ʃ/ /ʤ/ /r/ ] Letter: is an element in an alphabetic system of writing. Each letter often corresponds with one phoneme (sound) in the spoken form of the language. Upper case: is the capital letters. [ A,B,C,D...] Lower case: is the small letters. [a,b,c,d ] Phonetic: the study of sounds of languages. Silent letter: is a letter that, in a particular word, does not correspond to any sound in the word's pronunciation. Unit 3 definitions Phonetics: is the study of the sound made by the human voice in speech. Linguistics: the scientific study of language. Vocal tract: the cavities in the head and neck associated with the production of speech. Windpipe [Trachea]: it is the tube which carries air out from the lungs to the larynx and the vocal tract. The larynx: is known as ''Adam's apple'' or ''voice box'', it is a box-like organ that is placed at the top of the wind pipe. Vocal cords: pair of folds [muscles] placed inside Adam's apple, their edges move quickly backwards and forwards and produced sound when air from the lungs moves over theme. Voiced sounds: is sounds produced when the vocal cords are vibrating, { voiceless sound is the opposite }.
The pharynx: is the soft part at the top of the throat which connects the mouth and nose to the larynx. Oral cavity [mouth]: the mouth contains organs that play an important role in modifying the passage of the air flow coming from the lungs. The tongue: which is the most important organ of speech simply because it is involved in the production of almost all sounds and it can perform many movements to change the direction of the air coming from the lungs and produce different sounds. It is divided into five parts: Tip Blade: lies below the alveolar ridge. Front: lies below the hard palate. Back: lies under the velum. Root: the farthest point from the tip. Roof of the mouth: the tongue may be raised towards different points in the roof of the mouth, this movement modifies the air stream and thus controls the quality of the sound produced. The alveolar ridge: immediately behind the upper front teeth. The hard palate: the area behind the alveolar ridge. The velum [soft palate]: the back part of the roof of the mouth. The uvula: a small soft muscle dangling from the velum. The lips: play an important role in modifying and controlling the air flow, these different shapes of the lips greatly affect the quality of the sound produced. The nasal cavity[3sound]: the nasal cavity extends from the upper part of the pharynx to the nostrils [nose opening]. When the velum[soft palate] is lowered, the airstream can pass through the nose producing nasal sounds like /m/ /n/ /ng/. Phonetician: is a person who studies and describes human sounds, describes how manner and where place the sound is made by the organs of speech. Consonant: consonant are pronounced by stopping the air from flowing freely through the mouth, by closing the lips or touching the teeth with the tongue, like /b/ /p/ /m/.
Vowels: is a speech sound produced when the air flows out through the mouth without being blocked by the teeth, tongue or lips, [ the middle sounds in the following words are vowel sounds: teach, books, pool, sun]. Active articulator and passive articulator: are organs generally involved in the production of sounds, it is the active member that moves toward the passive one. Stop/plosive [6sounds]: Stops or plosive sounds are produced when the air stops completely at certain points in the vocal tract. There are 6 stops: (voiceless) (voiced) p t k b d g air is stopped completely Fricative [9sounds]: in the production of fricative consonants there is no complete closure of the air passage; it is rather narrowed so the air rubs against the organs of speech. [/f/ /v/] Affricate [2sounds]: in the production of these two sounds there is first closure [obstruction] of the airstream and then it is allowed to pass out through a narrow passage. [ /ʧ/ /ʤ/ ] Nasal [3sounds]: in the production of nasal consonants the soft palate is lowered so that the airstream flows out through the nose (because the oral cavity is closed). [ /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ ] Approximant [or glide] [2sound]: in the production of these sounds the active the active articulator moves close towards the passive articulator but without a point of contact, /j/ /w/. Lateral approximant [1sound]: it is produced when the air flows through the two sides of the tongue, /l/. Trill [1sound]: a trill consists of a series of rapid closures between tow articulators, /r/. Bilabial [the tow lips]: the tow articulators that take part in producing sounds are the tow lips, like /p/ /b/ /m/. Labiodentals [lips and teeth]: the active articulator is the lower lip and the passive articulator is the upper front teeth, /f/ /v/.
Labial-velar [or labio-velar]: to produced this sound there are simultaneous strictures [closure of the tow organs at the same time] at the lips and between the back of the tongue and soft palate, /w/. Dental: the active articulator is the tongue tip and the passive articulator is the upper front teeth, /Ɵ/. Alveolar: the active articulator is the tip or blade of the tongue and the passive articulator is the alveolar ridge, /t/ /d/ /n/ /s/ /z/ /l/ /r/. Post-alveolar: the active articulator is the blade of the tongue and the passive articulator is the back part of the alveolar ridge, /ʃ/ /Ʒ/. Palatal: the active articulator is the front of the tongue and the passive articulator is the hard palate, /j/. Velar: the active articulator is the back of the tongue and the passive articulator is the soft palate, /k/ /g/ /ŋ/. Glottal: the articulators that take part in producing glottal sounds are the vocal cords, like /h/. Received Pronunciation [RP]: it is the British English accent, it is the accent which is most frequently used as a model for teaching English as a second or foreign language. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Unit 4 definitions Vowel: is a sound produced with an open vocal tract; there is no closure of the air above the glottis. In other words, the airstream passes out freely through the vocal tact [a, o, u, I, e]. Significant vowel (phoneme): is a sound which changes the meaning of the word [hit hat heat hot]. IPA: stand for the International Phonetic Association or for International Phonetic Alphabet, the IPA Chart is a ''reference chart'' which phoneticians use to describe the sounds of human languages. Primary Cardinal Vowel: Daniel Jones designed what s known as the Cardinal Vowel System to describe how vowel sounds are produced. Cardinal vowels are a group of eight vowels and all other vowels are made from them. Daniel Jones: who developed the cardinal vowel system described vowels in terms of vertical position of the tongue (height), horizontal position of the tongue, and lips position.
Vowel length: is the duration of pronouncing a vowel sound. monophthong: is a sound of one vowel. There are two types of monophthong short (7 vowel sounds) and long (5 vowel sounds). diphthong: is a sound of two vowels, a movement from one vowel to another as in boy, eye, and now. There are 8 diphthongs. Triphthong: is a sound of three vowels, a movement from one sound to another to third as in liar, layer, and buyer. Minimal pairs: are pairs of words whose pronunciation differs at only one sound, such as sheep and ship. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Unit 5 definitions Phonology: studies how speech sounds are combined or merged into one another to produce words and utterances. It is the study of how sounds are organized and used. Phonemes: are meaningful sounds because if one is used instead of the other in a word, its meaning will change. Allophones: are the variants of phoneme. They do not change the meaning of word if one is used instead of the other. Transcription: It is the written form of a spoken language using a suitable set of symbols. There are two systems and two types of transcription. Transcription systems: 1. The international phonetic alphabet. (IPA) 2. The American phonetic notation (alphabet). (APA) Transcription types: 1- Phonetic transcriptions: are usually written in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), in which each English sound has a special symbol. - broad (phonemic) transcription: Broad transcription indicates only the noticeable phonetic features of an utterance.
- narrow (allophonic) transcription: narrow transcription shows more than the noticeable phonetic features of an utterance. 2- phonemic transcription: only the phonemes ( the 44 significant sounds of English) are considered. Minimal Pairs: refer to those pairs of words that differ in just one phoneme.[ Site fight might kite height white right.etc. ] Assimilation: means changing the pronunciation of a sound because of the impact of a neighboring sound and sometimes it is the melting of a sound into a neighboring sound. girl /goog girl/ ] Linking /r/: If a word ends with /r/ and followed by a word begins with a vowel, /r/ will be pronounced at the beginning of the next word. Intrusive /r/: some time the 'r' is inserted even when the previous word does not end in [r]. Aspiration: is the strong burst or puff of air that accompanies the release of some sounds, A voiceless plosive /k/ /p/ /t/ is aspirated and pronounced with a puff of air when it is used at the beginning of a word. [ good consonant cluster: is a group of consonant sounds one after the other without any vowel between them. [/spl/ and /ts/ are consonant clusters in the word splits ] Syllable structure: Words can be cut up into sound units called syllables. A syllable is a phonological unit composed of one or more sounds. They make the speech easier for the brain to process. (Each syllable is divided into two parts: onset and rhyme. The rhyme is divided into nucleus and coda. Not all syllables have all part). Onset: the beginning sound(s) of the syllable; the ones preceding the nucleus. These are always consonants in English. Rhyme is the rest of the syllable, after the onset. It can also be divided into nucleus + coda. - The nucleus is a vowel sound. -The coda is a consonant sound.