Phonology Second Edition Carlos Gussenhoven and Haike Jacobs Understanding Language Series Series Editors: Bernard Comrie and Greville Corbett Hodder Arnold A MEMBER OF THE HODDER HEADLINE (.ROl/P
Preface xi 1 The production of speech l.i Introduction 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1. 1.8 1.9 1.10 The lungs and the larynx 1.2.1 The vocal folds: the open and vibrating glottis 1.2.2 Devoicing and aspiration 1.2.3 Special types of phonation 1.2.4 Pitch 1.2.5 The glottal stop The vocal tract 1.3.1 The pharynx 1.3.2 The nasal cavity 1.3.3 The mouth Vowels Constrictions 1.5.1 Places of articulation 1.5.2 Types of constriction Segmental duration Complex consonants 1..1 Secondary articulations 1..2 Double articulations 1..3 Manner-contour consonants Nonpulmonic consonants Stress Conclusion 2 Some typology: sameness and difference 1 2.1 Introduction 1 2.2 Morphosyntactic structure 1 2.2.1 Morphological structure 1 2.2.2 Syntactic structure 18 2.3 A world without phonological structure 19 2.3.1 One phonology for all languages? 21 2.3.2 Two kinds of structure 22 1 l 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 9 9 10 12 14 14 15
2.4 2.5 2.6 Contents There's a difference Universals and implicational relations 2.5.1 Plain or special? 2.5.2 Avoiding complexity 2.5.3 A word of caution 2.5.4 Speech ergonomics 2.5.5 System gaps Conclusion 24 26 2 28 29 29 31 32 Making the form fit 3.1 3.2 3.3 Introduction Hawaiian Adjustment processes 3.3.1 The process of nativization 3.3.2 Adjustments in the native vocabulary 3.4 Two approaches 3.4.1 Rules 3.4.2 Constraints 3.5 Choosing between rules and constraints 3.5.1 Gradient violation and unranked constraints 3.6 Conclusion Underlying and surface representations 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Allophonic variation 4.3 Two levels of representation 4.4 Neutralization 4.5 Choosing the underlying form 4.6 Conclusion Distinctive features 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Introduction Motivating distinctive features Feature values A set of distinctive features 5.4.1 Major-class features 5.4.2 Laryngeal features 5.4.3 Manner features 5.4.4 Ambiguity and nonspecification 5.5 Place features 5.5.1 Labial 5.5.2 Coronal 5.5.3 Dorsal 5.5.4 Radical 34 34 34 35 35 39 40 40 40 43 45 4 48 48 48 51 53 54 55 5 5 5 59 59 60 63 64 65 6 6 68 68 69
5.6 Some examples 5. Redundant vs contrastive features 5.8 Conclusion 6 Ordered rules 6.1 Introduction 6.2 SPE representations 6.3 SPE rules 6.3.1 Reference to the syllable 6.3.2 The brace 6.3.3 Variable feature values 6.3.4 Parentheses 6.3.5 The transformational rule format 6.4 Linear order 6.5 Extrinsic and intrinsic ordering 6.6 Feeding, counterfeeding, bleeding, counterbleeding 6.6.1 Feeding order 6.6.2 Counterfeeding order 6.6.3 Bleeding order 6.6.4 Counterbleeding order 6. Opacity 6.8 Conclusion A case study: the diminutive suffix in Dutch.1 Introduction.2 General Dutch rules.2.1 Final devoicing.2.2 Palatalization.2.3 Degemination.3 Standard Dutch.4 The dialect of Sittard.5 Conclusion 8 Levels of representation 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Defining an intermediate level of representation 8.3 Lexical Phonology 8.3.1 Reference to morphological labels 8.3.2 Exceptions 8.3.3 Structure preservation 8.3.4 Native-speaker intuitions 8.3.5 Application across word boundaries 8.3.6 Lexical rules apply before postlexical rules 8.4 Phonological information in the lexicon 0 2 6 8 80 80 81 81 81 82 85 8 8 88 88 89 91 93 96 96 9 99 104 106 106 106 109 109 110 110 111 111 112 112 114
8.6 Beyond the surface representation 8.6.1 Phonetic implementation *' 8.6.2 Models of implementation 11 8.6.3 Deciding between phonology and phonetic implementation 8. Conclusion 120 Representing tone 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9. Introduction The inadequacy of a linear model Word-based tone patterns 9.3.1 Language-specific associations Stability Postlexical tone The Obligatory Contour Principle 9.6.1 Violating the OCP Conclusion UD 122 122 123 123 126 12 128 129 0 4 10 Between the segment and the syllable 10.1 Introduction 10.2 A skeletal tier 10.3 Syllabification: the Maximum Onset Principle 10.3.1 The sonority profile 10.4 Arguments for the CV tier 10.4.1 The templatic use ofthecv tier 10.4.2 Unfilled and unassociated slots 10.4.3 Compensatory lengthening 10.5 Moras 10.6 Syllable-based generalizations 10. Post-MOP syllabification rules 10..1 Ambisyllabicity in English 10.8 Conclusion 11 Feature geometry 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Two properties of assimilations 11.3 Natural feature classes 11.4 Building a tree 11.4.1 The place node 11.4.2 The laryngeal node 11.4.3 The supralaryngeal node 11.5 Spreading and delinking 11.5.1 Writing rules 11.6 Implications of underspecification 11.6.1 Default rules 11. Conclusion 1 ^5 5 5 8 9 9 142 145 15 151 155 15 159 160 161 16 l 16
12 Exploiting the feature tree 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Long-distance assimilation 12.2.1 Vowel harmony 12.3 Complex segments 12.3.1 Evidence for complex segments 12.3.2 The representation of palatals and palatoalveolars 12.3.3 Distinguishing among palatoalveolars 12.4 Conclusion Stress and feet.1 Introduction.2 The phonological nature of stress.2.1 Metrical feet and feet in poetry.3 Stress as an absolute property of segments: linear phonology.4 Stress as relative prominence: nonlinear phonology.4.1 A parametric theory of relative prominence.4.2 Four types of bounded stress system.5 Conclusion 14 Further constraining stress 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Iambic and trochaic rhythm 14.3 Foot-based rules 14.3.1 Quantitative adjustments 14.3.2 Foot-based segmental rules 14.4 Stress and morphology 14.5 Stress and Optimality Theory 14.5.1 Constraining stress 14.6 Conclusion 15 Phonology above the word 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Generalizations involving prosodic constituents 15.3 The Strict Layer Hypothesis 15.4 Factors determining prosodic phrasing 15.5 The prosodic constituents 15.5.1 The utterance 15.5.2 The intonational phrase 15.5.3 The phonological phrase 15.5.4 The phonological word 15.6 Deriving prosodic constituents 15.6.1 Clitics 15.6.2 The syntactic residue 15. Prosodic constituency below the phonological word 15.8 Conclusion 10 10 10 14 16 19 180 183 185 186 186 186 18 188 191 191 193 19 199 199 199 204 204 205 20 209 210 216 21 21 218 219 220 222 2^2 223 224 226 228 229 230 231 232
Epilogue Key to questions References Language index Subject index 233 " a 265 26 " n