GIVING EARLY SCHOOL LEAVERS AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE VCE AND TAFE 1 Richard Curtain Curtain Consulting, Melbourne Email: curtain@bigpond.net.au 10 October 2001 Executive summary A large number of Australians leave school before completing Year 12 and appear to have nothing more to do with formal learning. Governments need to provide incentives for those with minimal levels of formal education to continue participating in various forms of learning. Early school leavers need to get a second chance to access further learning opportunities. Two ways to do this are suggested. One option is to set up and promote the use of a series of tests to assess the knowledge and capabilities equivalent to those expected of a Year 12 graduate (the GED option). Another option is to offer a credential based on credits for prior learning but also includes recognition for demonstrated skills acquired from relevant work experience (paid or unpaid) ( the learning and work plus option). Also proposed is an independent vehicle in the form of a learners' agency to administer one or both of these options. 1 The preparation of this paper was funded by Group Training Victoria. However, the opinions presented are those of the author alone. I wish to express my gratitude to John Glover for his foresight in commissioning a think piece.
The need for more access points to formal learning Nearly two thirds of 15 to 24 year olds in Australia (63 per cent) who left school from Year 10 and Year 11 in 1999 were not in further education when surveyed five months later in May 2000. The situation improves with time as Table 1 shows. However, a quarter of 25 to 34 year olds in 2000 are still without Year 12 or a post school qualification. In the same position are a third of 35 to 44 year olds and nearly a half of 55 to 64 year olds (See Table 1). Table 1: Proportion of the Australian population who have neither completed the highest level of secondary school nor a post school qualification, May 2000, per cent 25 34 35 44 45 54 55 64 25-64 25.4 32.7 37.3 48.6 35.4 Source: ABS Transition from Education to Work, May 2000, Cat 6227.0, Table 17. However, less is known about adult participation in training that does not lead to a recognised award. TAFE statistics for 2000 show that 23 per cent of all VET students undertook courses that did not lead to any qualification while another 5 per cent of students were enrolled in stand alone modules (NCVER 2001). However, the prior level of education of these non-award course takers is not known. Other analysis suggests that those with higher levels of education attainment are much more likely than those with low levels of education to undertake further training (Cully, Curtain, VandenHeuvel, & Wooden, 2000). However, early school leaving, per se, is not necessarily the cause of later employability problems. A young person's chances of finding and keeping a job are highly dependent on their level of literacy and numeracy independently of being an early school leaver. Table 2 below shows the probability being unemployed for young Australians aged 15 to 25 years with less than upper secondary school completed for each level of demonstrated literacy. The data show that those who leave secondary school early with low levels of cognitive skills are particularly prone to unemployment. Table 2 Probability of being unemployed according to prose literacy score for males aged 15-25 yrs with less than secondary education, Australia, 1998 Literacy score 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Proportion unemployed 0.77 0.68 0.57 0.45 0.34 0.24 0.16 0.11 0.07 0.05 0.03 Source: OECD, 2000, Literacy in the Age of Information Age. Final Report of the International Adult Literacy Survey. p167. It is also important to note that Australia compared to other countries has a high proportion of young people with low literacy and numeracy skills. Compared with Richard Curtain 2 of 2
Sweden, for example, Australia has nearly twice the proportion of young people with low scores on a literacy assessment (OECD 1998: 52). Early school leavers in Australia and the US A study of the extent of early secondary school leavers in Australia and the US showed that there was little difference in its incidence between the two countries (Lamb and Rumberger 1999). The study also showed that in both countries, early school leaving rates were substantially higher for students from lower socio economic backgrounds, for students attending public or government schools, and for students with low achievement levels (Lamb and Rumberger 1999: vii). However, what was different was that almost half of early leavers in the United States went on to complete high school within two years of the normal high school graduating age. This meant that for the overall US cohort of young people within two years of leaving school, 88 per cent had completed high school or obtained an equivalent credential. The main means for gaining high school equivalency was by obtaining a passing score on the Test of General Educational Development (GED). This is a national examination developed and administered by the GED Testing Service, a program of the American Council on Education s Centre for Adult Learning and Educational Credentials. Another 24 per cent said they were enrolled in school or an alternative program that would prepare them to obtain a diploma or equivalent certificate (Lamb and Rumberger 1999: 9). In contrast, only 8 per cent of early leavers in Australia later completed Year 12. Although two-thirds of male early leavers had undertaken some form of post-school education and training (mostly apprenticeships) by the age of 19, they were excluded from university entrance due to their lack of Year 12. However, for female early leavers, the follow up results were very different. Only 36 per cent of female early school leavers had participated in some form of vocational education and training by age 19. This difference in post school education attainment for female early leavers had major labour market consequences. It meant that they were much more likely to spend long periods unemployed in the two years after they left school than those who completed Year 12 (Lamb and Rumberger 1999: 21). Option 1: What are the GED Tests and GED? The GED Tests aim to measure the outcomes of a four-year program of secondary school education in the United States and Canada using up-to-date secondary school curriculum standards and standardised assessment practices. Passing the test confers a widely recognized high-school-equivalency credential. This benchmark rates the recipient above the performance of at least one-third of high school graduates in the US. According the American Council on Education s Centre for Adult Learning and Educational Credentials which conducts the tests, one in every seven people who earn Richard Curtain 3 of 3
a high school diploma each year, does so by passing the GED Tests. 2 More than 95 percent of employers in the US are said to consider GED graduates the same as traditional high school graduates in regard to hiring, salary, and opportunity for advancement. 3 GED Tests are used by 90 per cent of US colleges to evaluate academic achievement. Only five US States do not recognise the GED credential as equivalent to a high school diploma. 4 The Tests of General Educational Development (GED Tests) were originally created to provide World War II veterans who had not completed high school before entering military service with an opportunity to earn high school credentials. The tests allow a high school dropout to obtain the GED credential by achieving state-specific passing scores on a seven and one-half hour, five-part written battery of tests assessing skills and knowledge in five areas: writing, social studies, science, reading, and mathematics. Until 1988 the format of the items on the test was exclusively multiplechoice. Since that year, the requirement to write an essay has became part of the writing examination (Murnane, Willet and Tyler 1999). The GED Tests are developed by committees of professional educators and test specialists in each subject area and are administered to graduating high school seniors to establish the passing standard. The Tests cover the core academic areas of language arts, social studies, science, and mathematics. As noted above, GED candidates are asked to compose a timed essay on an assigned topic as part of the Language Arts, Writing Test. The GED Mathematics Test has two elements: one of which permits the use of a calculator and the does not. The GED Science Test, using National Science Education standards, requires candidates to select the best way to set up an experiment, interpret others results, analyse experimental flaws, apply scientific conclusions to their personal lives, and use the work of renowned scientists to explain everyday global scientific issues. Increasing use made of the GED Tests GED is rapidly becoming a major educational credential in the United States. In 1999, just over half a million Americans obtained a GED, more than doubling the number (227,000) who received the credential in 1971. One-seventh of the young Americans who report in government surveys that they are high school graduates are actually GED recipients who obtained the credential after dropping out of school (Murnane and Tyler 1999). Much of the growth in the number of young adults obtaining a GED stems from US federal government policy. The Adult Education Act of 1966 provided significant funds to states for GED preparation programs. The Welfare Reform Act of 1988 specified that women without high school diplomas who receive welfare payments must either find employment, return to high school, or enrol in adult education programs, most of which are aimed at preparing participants for the GED 2 http://www.acenet.edu/calec/ged/ 3 Ibid 4 New Jersey Ponders Drawing Line Between Diplomas, GED http://www.edweek.org/ew/vol- 17/32ged.h17 Richard Curtain 4 of 4
examination. The 1986 amendments to the Higher Education Act specified that applicants for federal grants to pay for post-secondary education or training must demonstrate ability to benefit from the financial aid. For a school dropout, obtaining a GED is the easiest way to satisfy this condition (Murnane, Willet and Tyler 1999:4). Of those that took all five tests in 1999, 71 per cent passed at the level required to be granted a diploma. This proportion has remained consistent over time for the decade to 1999. The age profile of the test takers is presented in Table 3. Nearly half of the test takers are 19 years or less (43 per cent) and a quarter are aged 20 to 24 years. A third of test takers are aged 25 years and over. The 25 years and over adult participation has fallen from 41 per cent in 1990. Table 3: General Educational Development (GED) age of test takers: United States and outlying areas,1999 Percent distribution of test takers by age 19 yrs or 20 to 25 to 30 to 35 or total less 24 29 34 over 43 25 11 8 14 100 Source: American Council on Education, General Educational Development Testing Service, Who took the GED? Statistical Report 2000. Benefits of having a GED-type credential Obtaining a GED-type credential offers several potential benefits to the early school leaver. First, for some preparation for the GED tests could involve several hundred hours of study, and hence in itself increases skill levels. However, for most GED test takers this is not the case. The median length of time GED examinees report preparing for the examination is only 30 hours (Murnane, Willet and Tyler 1999: 6). The second potential benefit of obtaining a GED-type credential is that it can act as a signal to employers that the early school leaver possesses desirable traits, such as mastery of basic skills or a high level of motivation. This could be particularly important for those who previously have had little to show in terms of academic achievement or steady work The third potential benefit is that the acquisition of a GED-type credential makes it easier for the early school leaver to gain access to post-secondary education which in turn is likely to lift subsequent earnings. Another related indirect benefit is improving access to opportunities for promotion or merely more substantial work experience, resulting in increases in marketable skills. Demonstrated effects The analysis of longitudinal survey data for GED credential holders in the US up to1992 shows that the group of early school leavers most likely to show increased earnings by age 27 are those who scored low on cognitive skills tests while in high school (Murnane, Willet and Tyler 1999: 31). Research results show that the biggest Richard Curtain 5 of 5
benefit from the GED goes to those male early school leavers with low cognitive test scores while in high school but who later increase their skills and improve on other attributes such as attitudes to work. For this group, the GED signals to employers that they are more desirable employees than they had been in the past. The GED enables them to increase their earnings compared with other early school leavers who scored higher in the cognitive skills tests. The earnings level of this subgroup of GED holders is considerably higher than the earnings of high school non-completers with the same low skills. Another demonstrated benefit for GED-holders is through access to post-secondary education. GED recipients can use the credential to gain access to post-secondary education and hence benefit from this investment in enhancing their human capital. However, only 11 percent of GED-holders had completed at least one year of college by the age of 27, and only 8 percent had completed at least two years of college (Murnane, Willet and Tyler 1999: 32). These results suggest that a GED type testing process and credential is likely to be most effective at the margin. Those most likely to benefit are the most vulnerable in the labour market those in the population with low cognitive skills who have left school early. Option 2: the learning and work plus option The second option is to institute a credential based on the recognition of three sources of learning: the formal, the informal and the non-formal. Gaining a formal qualification is only one form of learning outcome. Other forms of learning are also important. These can include participation in the formal learning system to undertake a short course or merely to complete a module from a larger course. It can also include non-formal learning gained from participation in workplace training courses or from involvement on a voluntary basis in training required to undertake activities in non-government organisations. It may also include arts, music and sports classes undertaken in community-based learning organisations or private tutoring to prepare for examinations (European Union 2000). Still other forms of learning can be termed non-formal. This refers to learning that comes from activity-based experience gained through paid employment or through voluntary work. A common feature of this form of learning is that it takes place as a by-product of engaging in other activity and so may not be recognised as having taken place, even by individuals themselves (European Union 2000). The challenge of this option is first to devise a means of identifying the learning outcomes achieved by individuals in the form of knowledge and skills acquired through formal, non-formal and informal means. The second step is then to be able to package these different elements to constitute a credential. This could then be used by an individual directly with an employer to improve his or her job or career promotion prospects. The credential could also help to improve an individual s employability in the labour market more generally offering access to broader opportunities for participation in the formal learning system. Richard Curtain 6 of 6
Proposal for a learners agency Education and training providers have, for a range of reasons, have only provided limited opportunity to access RPL. ANTA data show that skills outputs associated with the recognition of prior learning accounted for only 2.5 per cent of total training activity in 1999. One difficulty is the potential conflict of interest that education providers may have in assessing prior learning. They, as fee for service providers, stand to forego income if they give significant recognition for relevant prior learning. An independent agency is best placed to develop and provide the assessment (Curtain 2001: 57). This assessment process could use internationally benchmarked instruments as a starting point for developing appropriate assessment tools. In relation to prose literacy, document literacy and numeracy, reliable instruments are available and have been demonstrated to be robust through OECD International Adult Literacy Survey. In relation to a broader set of social skills, the planned Adult Literacy and Life Skills Survey, to be conducted in 13 countries in 2002, is now testing instruments to assess teamwork, practical intelligence, and ICT skills. The agency could also act as a broker to negotiate on behalf of the individual with education and training providers to gain entry to or appropriate credit for this learning. It is essential that such an agency be funded independently of the Budget. To give it the autonomy required to play an advocacy role, its funding needs to be generated through its own activities. One way to do this would be to charge for the assessment services it offers. Conclusion The paper has proposed two options for offering early school leavers a second chance. The first is based on a well-established model in the United States that has demonstrated its worth in terms of widespread public acceptance. Evidence was also presented to show that those with low cognitive skills at school were the group to benefit most from a GED-type credential in terms of improved earnings. The second option is more radical as there are no existing arrangements to demonstrate how it might work on practice or its likely benefits. The first option could be implemented in toto on the basis of its demonstrated effectiveness. In particular, it could focus on the needs of those who have left school early as they are often stereotyped as failures by the senior secondary school system with its preference for an academically oriented curriculum. The second option is more geared to those who may be less alienated from the formal learning system but who want due recognition for the learning they have acquired in ways that the formal system has difficulty recognising. This second option is best approached through pilots which work through both the initial development and refinement of the assessment tools and how the brokerage role would work in terms of negotiating appropriate entry points to and credit from the formal learning system. Richard Curtain 7 of 7
The proposed independent Learners Agency could be responsible for developing and operating either options as part of a more general campaign to promote the importance of learning beyond the end of compulsory schooling. References Cully, M; Curtain, R; VandenHeuvel, A & Wooden, M, 2000, Participation in, and Barriers to Training: the Experience of Older Adults, Australasian Journal on Ageing Vol 19, No 4, November Curtain, R, 2001, Lifelong learning: what does it mean? CEDA Bulletin, July, 2001, http://www.ceda.com.au/ceda%20bulletinf.htm European Union, 2000, Memorandum on Lifelong Learning. Commission Staff Working Paper 1832, October. Lamb, S & Rumberger, R,1999, The Initial work and education experiences of early school leavers: a comparative study of Australia and the United States Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth, Research Report No 14, Australia Council for Education Research, Melbourne. Murnane, R and Tyler, J 1999, The Increasing Role of the GED In American Education, http://www.edweek.org/ew/ewstory.cfm?slug=34murnane.h19 Murnane, R; Willet, J; and Tyler, J, 2000, Who Benefits from Obtaining a GED? Evidence from High School and Beyond", Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol 82 No 1, February, p 23-38. Murnane, R; Tyler, J and Willet, J; 2000, Estimating the Impact of the GED on the Earnings of Young Dropouts Using a Series of Natural Experiments, Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol 115, No 2, pp 431-468. NCVER, 2001, Australian VET Statistics 2000, http://www.ncver.edu.au/statistics/vet/ann00/glance00/figure4.htm OECD, 1998, Education at a Glance: OECD Indicators, Organisation for Economic Development and Cooperation, Paris. Richard Curtain 8 of 8