Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 1 The Effects of Expectancy Value Theory and Entity-Theory on Education in a Middle School Setting Jaclyn R. Cain Educational Psychology The University of Akron Dr. Maudrey-Camino 28 April 2014
Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 2 Introduction The 2013-2014 school year is my fourth full year in the teaching profession. It is my third year teaching in my current district; however, it is my first year teaching Mathematics to eighth grade students. The school in which I am teaching is located in a rural township in Stark County for students, grades five through eight. I am currently only teaching Mathematics to one group of eighth graders for fifty-three minutes a day. Currently enrolled in this class is twenty-three students; ten of which I taught Mathematics to in seventh grade. This class consists of twenty-three students; ten males and thirteen females. There are twenty-one Caucasian and two African American students in this class. The student that I would like to focus on is a male student that moved into our district this school year. He gives me many problems in this class and is not very motivated. This student was observed for the possibility to be placed on an Individualized Education Plan; however, he did not qualify. Therefore, there are no students on an Individualized Education plan in this class. The student that I will be focusing on will be referred to as Daniel. Daniel received low C s and D s for the first semester as an eighth grade student at our school. Daniel is a behavior issue for his teachers and spends a lot of time in lunch detentions, after school detentions or being suspended from school. He is very argumentative, quick to snap on students and is always looking for something or someone else to blame for his behaviors. Though Daniel struggled with the material in Mathematics, he enjoys being the center of attention and working on the material with a teacher. In fact, when given work, his usual response is to repeatedly say, I don t get this until a teacher interacts in a positive way with him. If he is not receiving one-on-one attention, Daniel likes to
Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 3 distract other students by standing up and slowly walking around the room. He also likes to say students names and copy off of their work when he asks them for help. When Daniel gets in trouble, he immediately shuts down. If I take him out into the hallway to discuss his behavior, he avoids eye contact and doesn t participate in the discussion. About halfway into the first nine weeks, I moved Daniel s seat to a table of his own. I began interacting with him in the middle of class and drawing students attention to him when his behavior was positive. Though he was loud, distracting and didn t allow for other students to interact during direct instruction, his behavior improved when he became a positive center of attention. However, on days when he would be reprimanded for his negative actions, he would immediately shut down and blame his behavior on the fact that he sat by himself and was lonely. I slowly began to allow him to work with partners on classwork; however, I noticed that he was simply goofing around with those students and his partners were doing all of the work. When I talked to Daniel about this, he said he would change. With more than half of a school year left to go with Daniel, I was willing to try anything. I struck a deal with him with two weeks left in the second semester if he had positive behavior in our classroom for the rest of the semester, I would allow him to sit in a group of students like the rest of his classmates. He achieved his goal and after winter break, I arranged a table of students with similar abilities for him to sit with. Though it is not with his friends, he seemed to be pleased with this option. He began to work on his online classwork and ask me for help only after he would try it the first time. However, at the end of January, Daniel s behavior started to deteriorate again. I remember one time, during an assessment; he was continuing to talk to the students at his
Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 4 table. He was warned twice that if the behavior continued, I would rip up his quiz (which should have happened immediately with his history of cheating on classroom activities and homework.) He was told to rip up his quiz and to recycle it; which he did. However, following those instructions, he became very argumentative and disruptive to other students taking the quiz. He was sent to the hallway. He then wasted the entire period in the hall, even though he could have gotten to work on his assignment on his computer. He was distracting other students as they walked by and he was purposefully distracting students in our classroom who were trying to do their work. He was sent down to the office. His behavior varies from day to day; however, the argumentative behavior is more visible in my classroom than his positive interactions as of late. On a positive note, Daniel also gets extremely pleased with himself when he receives complements or excellent scores on schoolwork. As previously mentioned, Daniel rarely looks at an activity or worksheet without first asking for help because he doesn t get it. Though sometimes when I tell him I will help him after he tries the first time, he shuts down; other times, he is successful on his own. I recently pulled him to the hallway for a positive conference. I told Daniel that he had the ability to do this work because he obviously was able to get a 100% on the online assessment. He said he didn t like to fail and that is why he asks for help so often with the online coursework, he is able to try until he gets what score he enjoys. He is hit or miss with attempting to work on his own and succeeding; however, when he does, he is obviously incredibly proud of his work and his success. This situation is very stressful and overwhelming to me. Generally, I have an excellent relationship with almost all of my students. I pride myself on interacting
Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 5 positively with students and encouraging them to do their best and oftentimes seeing that encouragement help them succeed. The situation with Daniel is different for me because not only will his behavior change from day to day, it is difficult to determine what will help him succeed as a beneficial member of our class and society. It is frustrating when I feel that when something is working for Daniel, I feel that the rest of the student population in that class isn t benefiting. It is difficult to determine what will help him and the rest of the class. I am choosing Daniel for this project because I will still be working with him for the remainder of the school year. I would like to be able to determine a way to handle situations similar to Daniel s differently, because I am sure that I will encounter students similar to him again in my teaching career. For this paper, I will be looking at Entity Theory and the Expectancy Value Theory. The goal of this paper and study is to determine why Daniel showed the behaviors that he did. I will then determine and discover strategies that will help me continue to interact positively with Daniel, and to also discover strategies that will help me in the future when I have students that exhibit the same type of behaviors. Theoretical Analysis Entity-Theory Carol S. Dweck states that Entity Theory is the belief that intelligence is a fixed trait. People have a certain amount of intelligence and they can t gain anymore. This theory can make students feel that they don t have enough. They must look smart and, by no means, look dumb. Students who fall into the category of entity theory feel smart when they succeed at easy, low effort tasks. They also feel smart when they outperform other students. They see challenges as a threat to self-esteem and these students are
Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 6 likely to ignore important learning experiences because they are afraid of making errors and mistakes (Dweck, 2000). Students who believe in the entity theory are students who will shut down immediately when they are given challenging tasks. These students will become helpless when they risk facing failures. If a student fails once, they will give up, lose hope and their confidence will fail. Dweck (2000) says that these are the students who begin to say, I m not smart or I don t have a good memory (pg. 7). Though they want to do well, they want to minimize their schoolwork as much as possible. Entity theorists believe that working hard and facing challenges makes them feel dumb; putting forth effort won t help if your intelligence isn t there. Some studies have even shown that students would be likely to cheat on a test to prove that they have the ability of getting the higher score. Entity theorists don t put forth a lot of effort because they believe that genuinely smart people should have the intelligence and shouldn t have to work hard for it (Dweck, 2000). Dweck states an entity theory may give people a sense of security in a complex world (pg. 151). Many of my students struggle with difficulties in their every day lives they encounter things that some adults may not get to handle. Therefore, when it comes to intelligence, it may make them feel more secure in the fact that their intelligence is who they are, rather than something they can change and work for. Daniel is very much a holder of the entity theory. He believes that he knows how intelligent he is and will not put forth effort if he thinks it is too hard. Sometimes, Daniel looks at a problem, believes it is too hard, and immediately gives up because he isn t smart enough or doesn t want to fail. He enjoys leading his classmates when he feels he understands the materials;
Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 7 however, he immediately shuts down when he fears he will fail. He has told me that the reason he enjoys our online math assessment program, is because it allows him to continue to try to get a 100% to show me that he is smart not so that he can continue to learn more of the material. It seems as though Daniel has Entity Theory he doesn t want to put forth effort because there s nothing he can learn. With Daniel, it is important to stress that he is learning, and not just doing work for a grade. Expectancy Value Theory Expectancy Value Theory is the theory that a students motivation relies on a combination of their expectancies and values. Schunk, Pintrich and Meece (2008) define expectancy as people s belief and judgments about their capabilities to perform a task successfully (pg. 44). Values are defined as the beliefs students have about the reasons they might engage in a task (pg. 44). Barnhart (2011) states that students internally are motivated through information such as wondering, what task will [they] choose to participate in and how long or how hard will [they] try? If an activity doesn t mesh well with a personal identity, role or goals, they will choose not to participate in it. It is important to note why students are completing an activity. Expectancy Value Theory is based on four assumptions. Students seek to confirm their self image; they participate in different activities and different opportunities to confirm or contradict their self image; they value activities or opportunities that would confirm their self image or help them achieve their goals; and students are most likely to engage in tasks with higher value based on their perspective (Barnhart, 2011). Students are more likely so achieve, be engaged at a task and try harder and be persistent if they believe they can do the task and expect to do well (Schunk et. al, 2008).
Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 8 When planning lessons, it is important to keep in mind of students perspectives. It is crucial to determine how they would answer the following questions: Why should I do this activity? Am I able to do this activity? What will I gain if I am able to succeed? What will it cost me if I fail? (Barnhart, 2011). Teachers can also provide accurate feedback and keep tasks at a reasonable level of difficulty to help students achieve success and find value in their activities. With Daniel, I can continue to foster the idea to him that he is able to do the work that is assigned to him. When he sees success in himself, he is proud and willing to continue his work. He oftentimes says I don t get this before giving a problem a try; if he can be convinced that he can complete the activity, he can use that knowledge to gain motivation to persist and continue on. Practical Applications After my first few months of interacting with Daniel, I have had to make some changes with the way I interact with him. Knowing that he severely identifies with the ideas of Entity Theory and oftentimes expects himself to fail, in terms of the Expectancy Value Theory, I have had to change my interactions with him. Carol S. Dweck (2000) brings up the idea that entity theories would be the ones who intentionally withhold their effort when they must confront a difficult task by not studying enough before a test or by leaving things until the last moment (p. 41). Starting with a lower level task and working up levels of difficulty has helped Daniel tremendously. He is able to build his confidence and prove to himself that he can handle the task. He realizes that he is able to do an activity and he is more likely to stick with it. Dweck (2000) states that entity theorist believe that effort is a sign of low ability (p. 41). Again, as Daniel is exposed to lower level tasks in class, he is able to
Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 9 show his peers that he can succeed on what is given to him. As he progresses, he is learning the skill and can work up to the more difficult tasks. He is also showing his classmates that he can do the specific assignment, and feels great about it. I remember that Daniel used to just shout out numbers as we would do problems on the board; now, he is more likely to shout out the correct answer if I start lower and build his confidence. Though my Math class is quite loud sometimes, I am thankful that he is learning. To Daniel, a question that he often asks is what will I be able to gain if I succeed? This is one of the assumptions of the Expectancy Value Theory (Barnhart, 2011). He wants to look good, confirm that he is smart with easy tasks, and show everyone that he can do well. If he gets bragging rights about his successes, he is more likely to work harder to prove he is at his highest level of intelligence. The other day, we were taking a quiz in our Math class. Students had to match solutions to the systems of equations to which they aligned. Throughout the lessons prior to the assessment, Daniel was struggling. I was constantly pushing him, telling him that he knew how to do it and yet, he wasn t really trying. The day before the quiz, he finally completely shut down, saying that he didn t need to do it because he would never need to use this ever in his life. This was also an assumption of the Expectancy Value Theory; if a task doesn t mesh well with students goals, they may not be willing to push themselves to a higher level (Barnhart, 2011). Thus, I created a task. Whenever a student asks me when he or she may use this in their future careers, I offer an extra credit activity. Schunk, Pintrich and Meece (2008) states, Offer rationales for schoolwork that include discussion of the important and utility value of the work (p.65). Students are always looking for ways to look better to
Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 10 their peers and show off; therefore, being able to tell students when they may use certain Mathematical concepts is a great way to prove their intelligence without putting forth too much effort. Daniel was quick to want to search for a way that Systems of Equations would work. Though his motives were to prove me wrong, he was still motivated to figure out why he needed to learn these concepts. He wanted to show off to his peers that he was intelligent, and he didn t want to put forth a lot of effort to do so. Therefore, he was concerned about looking smart, when he would use concepts and didn t want to put forth too much effort. He was showing signs of identifying with the Entity Theory and the Expectancy Value Theory. Another piece of advice that Schunk, Pintrich and Meece (2008) give is to help students maintain relatively accurate but high expectations and perceptions of competence and avoid the illusion of incompetence (p.55). It is important to provide accurate feedback to students but also to let them know that their skills will still be growing. I have made it a goal of mine this year to be more honest with students. Previously, I had always tried to sugar coat what I would say to students. For example, if a student was struggling, but was trying really hard, I would be afraid to continue to push them. I would be afraid to hurt their feelings. But I have earned that honesty is incredibly important. Students should not be led to believe that they understand everything, and students should definitely not be led to believe that they are incompetent. I have noticed with conversations with not only Daniel, but with a lot of my students, that being honest with them allows students to feel that they can approach me. I am able to have realistic conversations with students to encourage more discussion and feedback.
Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 11 Daniel knows that I start with a lower level task with him; however, he knows that I will help him build his skills as he continues to practice. A lot of students have characteristics of the Entity Theory and the Expectancy Value Theory. Some students who are Entity Theorists believe that things should come easy to them because they are blessed with intelligence when they are born; other students who are Incremental Theorists believe that effort, practice and applications are a way to grow students intelligence (Dweck, 2000). In my classroom, I put a LOT of emphasis on student effort. I praise students for trying their hardest and a lot of my students work for positive praise so that they can get a good grade and look good to their peers. According to the Expectancy Value Theory, students are concerned with what they are going to get out of a task, how they will look while performing a task and aligning a task with their personal goals (Schunk et. al, 2008). I stress in my class the importance of hard work. I get to know my students and what goals they may have. I praise students for achieving their personal goals. It is important to stress the importance of hard work, of setting goals and of achieving goals. Making a conscious effort to do these things this year has proven to me that not just Daniel has benefitted from my researching of these theories. Reflection and Conclusion Through my research, I have discovered that I have hold of an incremental theory I have a belief that any student can change. I have hopes that I can create a relationship with students and those students can show me growth, development, and change in their intelligence in the short year that I get to know them. I believe in learning through failure and mistakes: it s like riding a bike when you fall, the only way to learn to ride is to get
Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 12 back on. Students like Daniel who may struggle with math or other subjects, will learn when they continue to try to improve. This project has helped me realize that I am able to continue with my goal to have strong relationships with all students; however, it is important to truly understand how a student may think or identify before a relationship is formed. Prior to applying what I learned about the Entity Theory and the Expectancy Value Theory, Daniel s relationship with me was quite rocky. Some days we had a very positive relationship and some days he was incredibly angry and argumentative. Though he still has his days, he rarely completely shuts down anymore. I know now what to do to help him, or any other student who may identify with these two theories. I have learned that it is important to be honest with students so that they are able to learn and grow from my genuine feedback. I think Daniel appreciates the work that I do with him a lot of other teachers have given up on him. They speak poorly of him during lunchtime and he is oftentimes in the office. I am incredibly thankful to have the opportunity to work with him and to see him succeed. At the end of this school year, I have high hopes for him and hope that his future teachers will take time to truly get to know Daniel, as well as all of the other students. Truly knowing who your students are is incredibly valuable, and truthfully, is the best way to help them learn.
Running Head: Entity and Expectancy Value Theory in Education 13 References Barnhart, T. (Producer) (2011). Motivation expectancy value theory [Web]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7_ctjnkah-m Dweck, C. (2000). Self-Theories: Their Role in Motivation, Personality and Development. Philadelphia, PA: Schunk, D.H., Pintrich, P.R. & Meese, J. (2008). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research and Applications (3 rd ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson