Table of contents Preface... 5 Introduction: English for teachers and learners... 15 English in Norwegian schools...15 Language awareness...17 The linguistic diversity in English classrooms...18 Communication is the main goal...21 What is English?...23 What is correct English?...23 Which variety to choose?...24 Learning and helping to learn English...25 The content of this book...27 PART 1 VOCABULARY... 29 Learning vocabulary... 33 1.1 Learning words in L1...33 1.2 Vocabulary development in L2 and L3...35 1.3 What does it mean to know a word?...36 1.4 Receptive and productive word knowledge...37 1.5 A quick look at how our memory works...38 1.6 Long-term memory and working memory...39 1.7 Deeper learning: Making word learning personally relevant...39 What is vocabulary?... 40 2.1 What is a word?...41 7
2.2 Word families...41 2.3 Multi-word vocabulary and frequent combinations...43 The lexical system of English... 45 3.1 The origins of English vocabulary...46 3.2 More about transparent words...47 3.3 Words and the world: Denotation and connotation...49 3.4 Word classes: Lexical (content) words and function words...50 3.5 The structure of words: Morphology...52 3.6 Lexical relations...55 3.7 Multiple meanings of words...57 3.8 Figurative meaning...58 3.9 Idioms...59 Word formation... 62 4.1 Creating words from other words: Derivation...62 4.2 Compounding...63 4.3 Conversion...65 4.4 Other word-formation processes...65 Words at work... 67 5.1 Collocations...67 5.2 Discourse markers...70 5.3 Sentence frames...71 5.4 A note about style...72 5.5 Spoken English: Vocabulary of conversation...72 Vocabulary in the classroom... 75 6.1 Learning English vocabulary: The main challenges...76 6.2 Teaching English vocabulary: The main challenges...79 6.3 Teaching principles...80 6.4 Possible tasks in the classroom...83 6.5 The 5 R s...86 6.6 Vocabulary strategies...87 6.7 Curricular aims for vocabulary development...89 8
PART 2 GRAMMAR... 91 What is grammar?... 95 1.1 Grammaring...96 1.2 Word classes...99 1.3 Phrases... 101 1.4 Word order patterns... 104 The grammar of nouns... 111 2.1 Noun forms... 111 2.2 Types of noun... 113 2.3 The structure of noun phrases... 118 2.4 Types of determiner... 122 2.5 Pronouns... 128 2.6 The function of noun phrases... 133 The grammar of verbs... 134 3.1 Verb forms... 135 3.2 Types of verb... 137 3.3 The structure of verb phrases... 140 3.4 Time and tense... 141 3.5 Aspect... 145 3.6 Modality... 148 3.7 Voice... 152 3.8 Various uses of the -ing form... 153 3.9 Verb forms after verbs: -ing or infinitive?... 154 The grammar of adjectives... 156 4.1 Adjective forms... 156 4.2 Types of adjective... 157 4.3 The structure of adjective phrases... 158 4.4 The function of adjective phrases... 158 The grammar of adverbs... 161 5.1 Adverb forms... 161 9
5.2 Types of adverb... 162 5.3 The structure of adverb phrases... 162 5.4 The function of adverb phrases... 163 The grammar of prepositions... 166 6.1 Preposition forms... 166 6.2 The structure of prepositional phrases... 167 6.3 The function of prepositional phrases... 167 Chapter 7 Clauses... 169 7.1 The forms of clauses... 169 7.2 Types of clauses... 169 7.3 The structure of clauses... 170 7.4 The function of clauses... 173 7.5 Relative clauses... 175 Chapter 8 Sentence types... 176 8.1 Simple sentences... 176 8.2 Compound sentences... 177 8.3 Complex sentences... 177 8.4 Alternative patterns: A question of focus... 178 Chapter 9 From sentences to discourse... 181 9.1 Coherence and cohesion... 181 9.2 Lexical coherence... 182 9.3 Cohesive use of determiners and pronouns... 182 0 Basic punctuation conventions... 183 10.1 The full stop... 183 10.2 The comma... 184 10.3 The apostrophe... 185 10.4 The semi-colon... 186 10.5 The hyphen... 186 10.6 Inverted commas / Quotation marks... 186 10.7 Other punctuation marks... 187 10.8 Capitalisation... 187 10
1 Grammar in the classroom... 189 11.1 Learning English grammar: The main challenges... 189 11.2 Teaching principles... 191 11.3 Possible tasks in the classroom... 193 11.4 Competence aims for English and relevant concepts of grammar... 195 PART 3 PHONOLOGY AND PRONUNCIATION... 197 Pronunciation and the Norwegian classroom... 199 1.1 What are the main challenges?... 200 1.2 Which English to learn? The question of norms... 202 What is phonology?... 204 2.1 Phonology, phonetics, phonemes and allophones... 204 2.2 Phonemes and phonemic symbols... 205 2.3 How do we produce speech sounds?... 207 2.4 The speech organs... 208 The speech sounds / phonemes of English... 213 3.1 Phonemes and allophones revisited... 213 3.2 The vowels of English... 215 3.3 The consonants of English... 228 Stress and rhythm... 242 4.1 Sentence stress and rhythm... 243 4.2 Weak and strong forms... 245 4.3 Regularity of stress... 246 4.4 Word stress... 247 Intonation... 249 5.1 The musical aspect of English intonation... 249 5.2 The communicative aspect of English intonation... 253 5.3 The Norwegian roller-coaster transfer... 256 11
Pronunciation in the classroom... 258 6.1 English pronunciation: The main challenges... 258 6.2 Principles and possible tasks in the classroom... 261 PART 4 VARIETIES OF ENGLISH... 267 English in the world... 269 British English... 272 2.1 British pronunciation... 272 2.2 British English grammar and vocabulary... 277 American English... 280 3.1 American English pronunciation... 280 3.2 American English grammar and vocabulary... 282 English outside the United Kingdom and the United States... 285 4.1 Canadian English... 285 4.2 Irish English... 286 4.3 Australian and New Zealand English... 287 4.4 East and West African English... 289 4.5 South African English... 290 4.6 South Asian English: India and Pakistan... 291 4.7 English in South East Asia... 293 4.8 Caribbean English... 294 Other varieties of English... 297 5.1 Sociolinguistic variation... 297 5.2 Formal and informal language... 298 5.3 Academic English... 299 5.4 Cultural differences... 302 12
Varieties of English in the classroom... 306 References... 309 Glossary... 311 Index... 341 13