The aligned curriculum Effective teaching is supported by an aligned curriculum. An aligned curriculum (Biggs 1996) requires: 1. clear learning outcomes 2. learning experiences designed to assist student achievement of those outcomes 3. carefully designed assessment tasks that allow students to demonstrate achievement of those outcomes 1. Learning outcomes Learning outcomes describe what students are expected to be able to do upon success in a unit. They provide a link between expectations, teaching and assessment. They begin with a strong action verb and describe specific tasks, preferably requiring students to develop higher order thinking skills. Purposes of Outcomes By knowing where you intend to go, you increase the chances of you and the learner ending up there Guide you in the planning of instruction, delivery of instruction and evaluation of student achievement Guide the learner helping him/her to focus and set priorities Allow for analysis in terms of the levels of teaching and learning Table 1: Characteristics of good unit learning outcomes Clearly stated tasks of higher thinking abilities Important learning goals Achievable Demonstrable Measurable Fair and equitable They are free from jargon and complex vocabulary, and they describe specific and achievable tasks (such as describe, analyse or evaluate ) NOT vague tasks (like appreciate, understand or explore ). They describe the essential (rather than trivial) learning in the unit, which a student must achieve. They can be achieved within the study period and there are sufficient resources available. They can be demonstrated in a tangible way. They are assessable (and achievement, and quality of achievement, can be observed). All students, including those with disabilities or constraints, have a fair chance of achieving them.
Unit / learning objectives What the theory says about writing learning objectives: learning objectives should be written in terms of observable, behavioural activities (what must the learner do) learning objectives should focus on the student and should target the expected student outcomes each learning objective should be measurable (what are the measurable standards?) Writing learning outcomes using Bloom's taxonomy According to Bloom s taxonomy, unit learning outcomes can be pitched at different levels of thinking. We can use this approach to think about the level of student learning we want to achieve. It provides a convenient way to describe the degree to which we want students to understand and use concepts. The main value of the taxonomy is twofold: (1) it can guide us teachers to decide what skills we want students to acquire and at which level. The taxonomy can lay a foundation for higher level learning by first ensuring that the lower level objectives are met; and (2) it provides a basis for developing measurement strategies to assess student performance at all these levels of learning. Assessments that require a lower order of thinking skills ask students to demonstrate only their knowledge and comprehension (for example, through tests of memory). More demanding thinking tasks and those more suitable to university education require students to demonstrate application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The phrasing of our unit objectives (and indeed any assessment wording we use) can help guide our teaching activities (what type of instructional activities will be appropriate) and assessment requirements. Table 2 gives a taxonomy for levels of thinking (a revised version of Bloom s 1956 taxonomy). It provides a simple framework for planning student thinking at all levels and the action words included might help when writing learning outcomes. The levels of the taxonomy are considered to be hierarchical. That is, students must master the lower level objectives first, before they can build on them to reach higher level learning.
Level of expertise 1. Knowledge 2. Comprehension 3. Application 4. Analysis 5. Synthesis 6. Evaluation Table 2: Bloom s revised taxonomy of educational objectives If you want students to... Recall, or recognise firms, ideas, procedures, theories, et cetera. This level is about remembering previously learned materials. It focuses solely on memory or recognising information. Translate, interprets, extrapolates, but not see fall implications or transfer to other situations (closer to a literal translation). This level is about giving meaning to information. Apply abstractions, general principles, or methods to specific concrete situations. This level is about using knowledge of principles in situations that are described to students. Separation of a complex idea into parts, and understanding the organisation and relationship between those parts. This includes realising the distinction between hypotheses and facts, as well as between relevant and irrelevant information. It can test whether students are able to break down complex information into simpler parts that were learnt at earlier levels of the taxonomy. Creative, mental construction of ideas and concepts from multiple sources. Form complex ideas into a new, integrated, and meaningful pattern (subject to given constraints). This level is about creating something that did not exist before by integrating information that has been learnt. To make a judgement about ideas or methods using external evidence or selfselected criteria substantiated by observations or informed rationalisations. This level is about judging the value of a product for a given purpose, using definite criteria. Use one or more of these verbs Arrange, define, describe, distinguish, find, identify, label, list, locate, name, order, recall, recognise, repeat, reproduce, state, underline choose, classify, describe, demonstrate, discriminate, express, extrapolate, formulate, interpret, indicate, illustrate, legal, locate, outline, represent, response, restate, review, select, translate Apply your knowledge, calculate, classify, compute, demonstrate, develop, employ, implement, instruct, illustrate, operate, organise, perform, predict, relate, restructure, sketch, solve, show, use Analyse, appraise, categorise, compare and contrast, conclude, detect, debate, determine, deduce, diagram, distinguish, differentiate, dissect, estimate, examine, explore, evaluate, identify, interpret, investigate, relate, question Argue, Combine, conclude, construct (from a set of unstructured information), compose, create, design, derive, discuss, formulate, generalise, integrate, modify, organise, plan, prepare, produce a new set of..., Proposed, Relate, reconstruct, set up, specify, write appraise, argue, assess, Attach, criticise, critique, decide, defend, determine, evaluate, Judge, justify, predict, rate, support, delegate, value, weigh up (in terms of internal and external evidence)
How can I modify learning outcomes to make them more demanding? Learning outcomes can be made more difficult or demanding by changing the active verb to a more complex one or by adding specific conditions or limits. For example simple outcomes might be to list or state facts, formulae or definitions, essentially recalling information from memory and reproducing it. More complex outcomes might ask learners to apply or use knowledge in an unfamiliar context. This is more cognitively demanding and really tests whether learners have deeply understood concepts. Finally the highest levels of outcomes ask learners to solve complex problems by, for example evaluating or analysing evidence or synthesizing information. To critically evaluate the causes of something involves not only a deep understanding of detailed factual information but also an ability to make complex judgments about the validity of evidence. For example, describe quantitatively is more demanding than just describe, and describe quantitatively using data from published studies implies a familiarity with the primary literature that only the advanced student might have. Certain outcomes can be modified by the degree to which they need to be completed. Explain in detail is more complex than outline. 2. Teaching and learning activities Teaching activities are any approach, mode or resource material you choose for students to do or use in interacting with content to help achieve the intended learning outcomes. Teaching activities also need to be linked to your learning outcomes so that students can see the relationship between them and understand the purpose of their learning. They need to be able to see that when you have them working in small groups or teams to complete a project, for example, you are helping them learn the principles and skills of teamwork and interpersonal interaction, as well as time management and selfregulation, and that these skills will be valuable in their future careers. You might choose to use a problem-based learning approach with printed support material and web-based resources. You may choose intensive lab sessions for small groups with tutors to develop skills in using specialised equipment required in their future career. A selection of teaching activities is provided in Table 3. Table 3: Example teaching activities Teacher controlled activities Peer activities Independent activities Lectures, tutorials, practicals, printed study guide, demonstrations, coaching, field trips Group projects (face-to-face or online), collaborative tutorial or team activities, problem-based learning, group discussions (face-to-face or online), group presentations, role play, professional work placement, brainstorming. Researching, writing essays or reports, preparing case studies, self-reflection, planning, problem exercises for practicing and applying, quizzes and exams, watching CD ROM.
3. Assessment Once we've determined what we are expecting our students to achieve, Bloom's taxonomy (and the words associated with its different categories) can help in determining which assessment techniques are most appropriate to measure the goal we want to achieve. For example, a multiple-choice test may be adequate for assessing knowledge and comprehension (levels one and two), but this type of assessment falls short when we want to assess students knowledge at the higher levels of synthesis and evaluation (levels five and six). If we ask students to compare and contrast something, we are testing at the level of Analysis, even though or you may be hoping for a synthesis or evaluation. To test level five and six learning we could have used 'critically discuss. Assessment criteria Assessment criteria are statements that express in explicit terms how performance of learning outcomes might be demonstrated (CATL). They are characteristics of something, the quality of which can be judged or estimated. They provide a rationale for grading judgements after they have been made and results given back to students. It is almost impossible to explain a particular judgement without referring to criteria. Assessment criteria measure if a student has achieved a learning outcome and, how well the student has achieved the learning outcome. Using assessment criteria as a learning tool Use your assessment criteria to annotate past students work (with permission) to act as models for standards of expectations create criteria matrices for students to use as part of peer feedback. Peer feedback is a teaching activity that facilitates learning of the givers and receivers of feedback convey which criteria are more important, by attaching marks to the various criteria create criteria sheets to help students self-assess their skills. These could even be submitted with the assignment with a mark allocated. This task promotes self-reflection and reinforces personal portfolio development and personal planning (lifelong learning) Further reading Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R., et al 2000, A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Allyn & Bacon, USA. Biggs, J. 1999, Teaching for quality learning at university, Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press, Oxford. Bloom B.S. 1956, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York, David McKay. Centre for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning. Curriculum development: Assessment. http://www.catl.uwa.edu.au/resources/curriculum/assessment Tarlinton, D. 2003, Bloom s revised taxonomy, PowerPoint slide presentation downloaded from http://www.kurwongbss.eq.edu.au/thinking/bloom/bloompres.ppt
Level of desired understanding 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Remembering (can the student recognise/recall information?) Understanding (can the students explaining/classify ideas or concepts?) Applying (can the student use/implement the new knowledge in another familiar situation?) Analysing (can the student differentiate between and organise/relate constituent parts?) Evaluation (can the students justify an opinion, decision, or cause of actions by checking and critiquing the given problem?) Creating (can the student generate/plan new products, ideas, or ways of doing things?) Table 4: Using Bloom s taxonomy to write assessments Skills assessed by direct questions that test students ability to recall facts, identify, and repeat the information provided. observation and recall of information knowledge of dates, events, places knowledge of major ideas mastery of subject matter having students restate material in their old words; reorder or extrapolate ideas; predict, or estimate. Assessments provide evidence that the students have some comprehension of what they are saying understanding information grasp meaning translate knowledge into new context interpret facts, compare, contrast order, group, infer causes predict consequences presenting students with a new situation, and having them apply that knowledge to solve the problem or execute the proper procedure. use information use methods, concepts, theories in new situations solve problems using required skills or knowledge presenting students with a unique situation that is SIMILAR BUT NOT IDENTICAL to that used in the course. Have them analyse the situation and describe the appropriate procedure or solution to the problem. seeing patterns organization of parts recognition of hidden meanings identification of components presenting students with a unique situation NOT of the same type used in the course. Have them solve the problem by selecting and using the appropriate information. use old ideas to create new ones generalize from given facts relate knowledge from several areas predict, draw conclusions presenting students with a situation which includes both the problem and a solution to the problem. Have them justify and critique the solution. compare and discriminate between ideas assess value of theories, presentations make choices based on reasoned argument verify value of evidence recognize subjectivity