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1 This article was downloaded by: [Massey University Library], [Linda Rowan] On: 14 June 2015, At: 16:43 Publisher: Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: Registered office: Mortimer House, Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: University transition experiences of four students with dyslexia in New Zealand Linda Rowan a a Institute of Education, Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand Published online: 16 Jun Click for updates To cite this article: Linda Rowan (2014) University transition experiences of four students with dyslexia in New Zealand, Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 19:2, , DOI: / To link to this article: PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the Content ) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &

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3 Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 2014 Vol. 19, No. 2, , University transition experiences of four students with dyslexia in New Zealand Linda Rowan* Institute of Education, Massey University, Manawatu, New Zealand This study considered the previous educational experiences, decision-making, and firstyear experiences of four students who self-identified as learning with dyslexia within one university in New Zealand. The study showed that despite achieving the required standards for entrance to study at university, some students lacked the knowledge and self-advocacy skills necessary to access the learning support available to them at the university. Without good quality, relevant and focused course advice, students with dyslexia are at risk of being mismatched in academic programs, failing to complete their courses of study and incurring financial costs. With appropriate course advice, connecting to support services early, and applying proven study and time management strategies, these students are able to achieve grades higher than in compulsory education, suggesting that high school academic results should not be used as a predictor of their success at university. By understanding the learning experiences of successful students with dyslexia as they transition to university, we can improve how we encourage and support academically capable students who struggle with literacy in their compulsory and tertiary education. Introduction Each year, students in their final year of compulsory education in New Zealand follow the advice of politicians, teachers, advisors, and parents to pursue some form of higher education with the expectation of being able to complete their studies and move into a career. In the new academic year, teachers stand before a sea of faces that tell them little about the students they are about to teach. International studies show that the first year transition experience is important to tertiary study, student engagement in higher education, and continuation in academic study (Leach & Zepke, 2011; Tinto, 2012). The earlier the decision to pursue study in higher education is made, the better prepared students are for study and the more successful the transitions is, resulting in better academic achievement (Choy, Horn, Nunez, & Chen, 2000). How students engage in their studies, relate to their peers and academic staff, and seek assistance through support services are important to the first year experience and completion of studies (Choy et al., 2000; Krause & Coates, 2008). Students prior experiences in education can impact on the way they engage in learning, access course information and learning materials, and seek academic support. The debate is still open as to whether the institution, the student, and/or others should be responsible for ensuring that the transition process and subsequent learning experience is successful (Leach & Zepke, 2011). The more we know about the factors that play a part in successful transitions of students, the more responsive institutions and teachers can be in enabling successful transitions into higher education. Looking at student experiences * l.m.rowan@massey.ac.nz q 2014 Learning Difficulties Australia

4 130 L. Rowan through a constructivist approach acknowledges that individuals understandings of their prior experiences shape the decisions and actions they take (Charmaz, 2006). A more pragmatic approach can suggest that outcomes such as the past academic performance of students can be used to indicate future results (Shulruf, Hattie, & Tumen, 2008). However, all examinations of transition need to acknowledge the varied roles the student, the institution, and our understanding of each other influences the actions taken. Learning with dyslexia Dyslexia is a paradox. It is known to exist but there is no evidence of its origin. Varied cognitive and psychometric tests are used to determine dyslexia, but, as Mortimore and Crozier (2006) and Pollack (2005) identify, the characteristics differ between individuals in such a way that there are no clear indications of what works, or doesn t work, in assisting learners. The way in which dyslexia is viewed, defined, tested for, and supported is based on the underlying assumptions inherent within the discourse in which it is described. The medical definition of dyslexia is a deficit discourse, where dyslexia is described as the result of a biological dysfunction or abnormality in the structure or working of the brain (Miles & Miles, 1999; Snowling, 2000). The cognitive education impairment discourse has developed as education has become more important, focusing on cognitive brain functions of vision and speech in literacy. Since the 1970s psycholinguistic theories have emphasized the place of phonology, word retrieval, and the function of brain hemispheres in literacy processes (Lyon, Shaywitz & Shaywitz, 2003; Snowling, 2000). The problem lies within the individual, but with the right intervention, the deficit can be overcome. The social affective discourse accepts dyslexia as a learning difficulty based on socio-economic and sociocultural constructions of literacy (Miles & Miles, 1999). In this discourse, the barriers become the focus. The more recent emergence of the cognitive difference discourse places emphasis on brain function and thinking process, demonstrating that there are a variety of ways in which the brain processes reading and writing (Shaywitz, 2003). The discourse of dyslexia taken by professionals, and others, in explaining dyslexia influences the ability of students with dyslexia to advocate for themselves within education. For the purpose of this study, dyslexia is defined as an on-going learning difficulty in literacy-rich tasks, in individuals who receive appropriate literacy instruction and support as children. These difficulties with literacy are thought to be due to some problem in processing the small units of sound (phonemes) in spoken words (Dymock & Nicholson, 2012). This impacts on the fluidity and accuracy of decoding and word recognition in reading and writing. Typically, students who learn with dyslexia require more time to read and understand written texts and, in turn, write down their own knowledge (Mortimore & Crozier, 2006; Pollack, 2005). Long term this impacts on academic achievement and career choices. This study sits within the social affective discourse acknowledging that dyslexia affects learning rather than being a problem that lies within the individual. Students with dyslexia often require different skill sets and support to progress with learning in compulsory education. The New Zealand Ministry of Education has only recognized dyslexia since 2007 and strategies for supporting these students are still in their infancy. Thus, while course advisors, teachers, parents and students may have heard of dyslexia, understanding of the support needed and long term impacts of this learning difficulty are not well understood (Dymock & Nicholson, 2012). Studies in the United Kingdom and Australia, where learners with dyslexia receive specialized assistance, show that students with weaknesses in literacy often do not have secondary school results which

5 Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties 131 reflect their academic ability (Chanok, 2007; Mortimore & Crozier, 2006; Pollack, 2005). Lack of teacher understanding and inappropriate learning support has often affected their learning experiences and academic outcomes. However, these studies found that some students with dyslexia who attain the necessary university entrance qualifications see university as an opportunity to prove their academic capability. The way in which learning with dyslexia is viewed by the student, their educators, and learning institutions affects the educational choices made by the student, their transition to study, academic success, and completion of a qualification. This study In order to understand the issues facing first year students who learn with dyslexia in higher education, this small study explored in depth the learning transition experiences of four students with dyslexia at one university. The study focused on their previous educational experiences, their decision making about future study, and their transition into the first year of university study. Ethics approval was granted by the participating university. Methods An interpretivist methodology and constructivist grounded theory approach following Charmaz (2006) were used to look at the learning experiences of the students. In gathering information, the interpretive approach allowed for recognition of the cultural and historical influences on the students perceptions of their dyslexia, which influenced their decision-making and transition, in the analysis of their stories. According to Charmaz (2006), the inductive approach inherent in grounded theory allows for the analysis of students ideas in a particular context and recognized the researcher s subjectivity, knowledge, and analysis shaping the understanding of the topic. Thus, the findings from this study attempt to reflect the participants understanding of their experiences within a social affective lens. The four students studying for Bachelor degrees, self identified as having difficulties with reading and writing tasks recognized as dyslexia after undergoing psychometric testing with educational psychologists. Four students (two males, two females) aged years, studying a range of disciplines responded to advertisements on university and student support notice boards (Table 1). Their characteristics of dyslexia were determined in response to the British Dyslexia Association (BDA) key indicators checklist (2008). The three first-year and one fourth-year students were interviewed about their first year experiences using a face-to-face or directed conversation approach (Charmaz, 2006). Predefined information gathering key questions were used to initiate discussion and were followed by more informal conversation to extend the students responses (Appendix). Table 1. Characteristics of participants in this study. Detail Jack Claire George Jane Age (years) Secondary school type Integrated State Private Integrated Age when dyslexia recognised Year of study and discipline First Geography First Arts First Commerce Fourth Design BDA key dyslexia indicator 16/20 13/20 8.5/20 13/20

6 132 L. Rowan Follow-up interviews and exchanges were used to clarify students responses. The information gathered in the interviews was transcribed, coded, and themes considered. Commonalities and differences in experiences were acknowledged. Results and discussion Gaining university entrance The level of support provided in secondary school was critical to these students obtaining the necessary qualifications for university entrance. Support came from encouragement of teachers, and an expectation of the students and their families that they could and should pursue an academic career despite their literacy struggles. As also found by Mortimore and Crozier (2006) and Rowan (2010), traditional support networks of family and friends were identified as important to student success. The age at which students were seen by an educational psychologist affected their learning experiences and levels of support. Two students, tested at age seven, received additional tuition specific to children with learning difficulties and a high level of parental interaction in educational decision-making. As a consequence, George was well supported by teachers trained and experienced in teaching children with literacy difficulties at his small, self-funding, private high school. They already had a learning difficulties unit... in fourth form I was fulltime... [they] started from the basics of everything and built it up so that helped a lot... Teachers at Jane s integrated school (state funded former private school) acknowledged her individual strengths and academic diligence. At university, both students had confidence in themselves as learners and had firmly established an identity as university students. This is consistent with Krause and Coates (2008) finding that student identity is important in engagement in higher education. How a student performs and succeeds is directly influenced by the students and staff s expectation of them as university students (Tinto, 2012). George and Jane expected to succeed. Jack and Claire found that they had dyslexia-like characteristics in their teenage years. Jack described learning in his integrated school as... an emotional roller coaster..., until his abilities and aspirations to study at university were recognized by a teacher who helped him with his exam study techniques. Claire struggled throughout schooling being reproached for not doing things in the right way. She found learning difficult, the remarks of teachers cutting, and in year 11 gave up, skipping classes or sitting dreaming. At the end of the year, she learnt about her dyslexia. She received no extra support at school, but family expectations that she should study at university drove her to gain university entrance. The language used by these students reflects the socio-emotional impact of learning with dyslexia similar to the findings of Wilson and Savery (2012). The stresses these students experienced at school may have impacted on the quality of their work and continued to impact at university (Dymock & Nicholson, 2012). Mortimore and Crozier (2006) found students who have bad experiences at school are less likely to seek help. This is an important factor as the ability of students to seek support, and the institution to provide support, in the first year is critical to longer term success (Tinto, 2012). The prior learning experiences of all four students had a direct impact on their transition to university, particularly in course selection, seeking support at university, and in the attainment of grades in the first year. Course advice The type and suitability of course advice provided varied between students affecting success in their first year of study. Krause and Coates (2008) identify course advice as critical to

7 Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties 133 students making good decisions in their first year of higher education. A holistic approach in career advice which identified strengths, weaknesses, and interests provided an excellent base for progression into George s chosen program at university... he [careers advisor] gives a really big questionnaire... he said you could look at this and other similar things... it was someone I could discuss it with. He was someone with expertise in the area. The other students relied on university course advisors and information sought by family members in choosing first year courses. Course advisors were told that the learner had dyslexia, and the students expected this information to be taken into account in the advice offered. She [my sister] did ring up the university and go through the papers I was doing and asked them how hard would it be for me? [Jack]. Krause and Coates (2008) identify the consequences of poor course advice to the student can be significant to student progress and attainment especially in discipline based degrees. All of the students found the advice provided by the university course advisors inadequate. George found prerequisites for second year were not explained until the end of the first year...if I want to do a third year paper, I have to do this first year paper as a prerequisite... we are just getting told that now about some of our papers. Claire and Jack enrolled in courses that neither met the description outlined in the prospectus nor their interests. They struggled through first semester, relying on their work ethic and personal work strategies to get them through. One student failed their papers and the other scraped through. These two students subsequently changed courses incurring additional financial costs of study as a result. Quality course advice is important for all students, but especially for students with learning difficulties. Mortimore and Crozier (2006) found where students with dyslexia have difficulties with their course, and get lower grades, they are more likely to withdraw from study or gain degrees with lower grades. Students well matched with courses, that interest them, are intellectually stimulated by course content and therefore motivated to put effort into their study (Krause & Coates, 2008). Career advisors acting on behalf of schools and universities need a greater understanding of the demands of tertiary study on students with learning difficulties. Where course advice is given matching the strengths and interests of learners, as well as the academic demands of the discipline, better outcomes are likely. Expectations of university All students expected to have to put in longer hours and more effort than their contemporaries to succeed at university. I probably spend fifty percent more time than others in my class work,... doing 50 hour weeks studying, talking with others, processing it [Jack]. Consequently, they set up rigorous study timetables sacrificing social and sporting activities to keep up with course work. Kirby et al. (2008) reported that Canadian students with dyslexia, who completed their secondary education, were likely to have developed and adapted study and learning strategies that worked successfully for them. George explained... [studying with dyslexia] takes that extra bit of work and often that comes to the detriment of extracurricular activities, nights out and having coffee with friends on Sunday, you just have to say sorry I have to work. Mortimore and Crozier (2006) found that even with time management behaviors, the need for extra study time can have a profound impact on these students social engagement in the wider learning environment. Thus when difficulties do arise, it is harder for these students to seek help. Once good course selection had been made, all four students achieved grades at university higher than they had been getting in compulsory education. Similar to the

8 134 L. Rowan findings of Wilson and Savery (2012), the students here attributed this to personal resilience, being able to bounce back from failure to develop their own learning strategies and environments to suit their learning needs. Overall their self management habits suited the more self-directed environment of university study. Shulruf et al. (2008) argue that in New Zealand, high school academic results are a good indicator of success in the first year. The results from the students with dyslexia in this study and the study by Pollack (2005) show that high school academic results should not be used as a predictor of success at university. Kirby et al. (2008) also found that as learners with dyslexia specialized, they were more engaged in their courses, their study strategies worked for them, and they achieved higher grades than expected. They had a deeper learning approach than their peers. However, the primary focus of managing their time and using study aids in reading can have an impact on other necessary skills. Mortimore and Crozier (2006) found the time restrictions needed for reading in study also mean that some students lacked appropriate exam strategies for the new learning environment. In the first year, these students struggled with their exams and exam techniques. Delays in receiving learning support meant they did not receive extra time for exams at the end of their first semester. Therefore, their exam results were unlikely to reflect their full understanding of their subjects. For full recognition of their academic ability, these students need to receive access to full levels of learning support at the commencement of study in higher education. Student support Access to the student support available at university proved variable. Familiar with needing to advocate in educational environments, George and Jane approached learning support facilities of the university immediately upon enrolment. However, there was still a lag in receiving the assistance of note-takers and extra time in exams until the second semester of their first year of study. This impacted on their learning with students identifying that it was much easier to focus on their studies in the second semester when they knew help was available. Even so, Kirby et al. (2008) found with full access to learning support, the reading speed and comprehension difficulties in dyslexia can continue to impinge on the quality of information being learned. Learning support may need to be customized to suit the individual. Jack and Claire did not know where to seek help at university. The lack of assistance in their earlier education meant they lacked the self advocacy skills necessary to seek help and lacked knowledge of the learning assistance available for them. At the conclusion of their first year of study, they were still in the process of being included into learning support programs. The experiences of these students is similar to that seen in UK studies where, even with legislative obligation to provide support at university, unless a student has experienced learning support in compulsory education they are reluctant to seek help or struggle to find appropriate assistance at university (Mortimore & Crozier, 2006; Pollack, 2005). Even when assistance is sought, Chanock (2007) identifies that students need to understand that the institutional responses to learning support requests may not be based on a common understanding of dyslexia or what the student requires for help. By improving learning support and self advocacy skills in compulsory education, students with learning difficulties should be able to access the services available to them at university more easily.

9 Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties 135 Conclusion The academic success of students with dyslexia in New Zealand universities continues to be seriously undermined by the lack of understanding of the impact of the first-year tertiary experience on them. The recognition of dyslexia and the development of policy and pedagogy to support these learners in compulsory education is a good starting point, but it needs to be continued in the transition of these capable students into study at university. Appropriate teaching and learning strategies and recognition of these students resilience needs to be acknowledged. Providing a wider range of learning and assessment opportunities will allow for better knowledge retention, demonstration of understanding, and increased student outcomes. This study shows that while they may not have received additional learning support in earlier education, students who learn with dyslexia are capable of achieving the required standards for university entrance with support from teachers and their families. With earlier recognition of their learning difficulties and appropriate levels of support, their success at university should be higher. Without good quality, relevant, and focused course advice, current students with dyslexia are at risk of being mismatched in academic programs, incurring financial costs of program changes, or failing to complete their studies. Even if students have received learning support in compulsory education, there is no certainty that similar levels of learning assistance will be provided in the first year of study. Students who do not receive help in earlier education are unlikely to know they can seek assistance at university. Tertiary study support systems need to be more visible to learners with dyslexia for whom even minor levels of support can make major differences in academic outcomes. Educators need to be reminded that there are capable students with learning difficulties who will continue to struggle with the rigors of academic study in their first year at university despite their dedication, excellent time management skills, and proven study skills. Some of these students may be unaware that learning support is available, and time delays in receiving support will continue to disadvantage them. As long as the significant gap between learning assistance that could be received in higher education and what is accessed exists, students with dyslexia are unlikely to have the opportunity to reflect their true academic capabilities. References British Dyslexia Association (2008). British Dyslexia Association. Adult Dyslexia Checklist. Retrieved from Chanock, K. (2007). How do we not communicate about dyslexia? The discourses that distance scientists, disabilities staff, ALL advisors, students, and lecturers from one another. Journal of Academic Language & Learning, 1, A33 A43. Charmaz, K. (2006). Constructing grounded theory: A practical guide through quantitative analysis. London: Sage publications Ltd. Choy, S. P., Horn, L. J., Nunez, A. M., & Chen, X. L. (2000). Transition at College: What helps at risk students and students whose parents did not attend college. New Direction for Institutional Research, 107, Dymock, S., & Nicholson, T. (2012). Dyslexia decoded: What it is, what it isn t, and what you can do about it. Wellington: Fitzbeck Publishing. Tertiary Education Commission. Kirby, J. R., Silvestri, R., Allingham, B. H., Parrila, R., & La Fave, C. B. (2008). Learning strategies and study approaches of postsecondary students with dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 41, Krause, K.-L., & Coates, H. (2008). Students engagement in first-year university. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 33,

10 136 L. Rowan Leach, L., & Zepke, N. (2011). Engaging students in learning: A review of a conceptual organiser. Higher Education Research & Development, 30, Lyon, R. G., Shaywitz, S., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). Defining dyslexia, comorbidity, teachers knowledge of language and reading: A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53, Miles, T. R., & Miles, E. (1999). Dyslexia: A hundred years on (2nd ed.). Buckingham: Open University Press. Mortimore, T., & Crozier, W. R. (2006). Dyslexia and difficulties with study skills in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 31, Pollack, D. (2005). Dyslexia, the self and higher education: Learning life histories of students identified as dyslexia. Stoke on Trent: Trenton Books. Rowan, L. M. (2010). Learning with dyslexia in secondary school in New Zealand: What can we learn from students past experiences? Australian Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10, Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new and complete science based program for reading problems at any level. New York, NY: Random House. Shulruf, B., Hattie, J., & Tumen, S. (2008). The predictability of enrolment and first-year university results from secondary school performance: The New Zealand National Certificate of Educational Achievement. Studies in Higher Education, 33, Snowling, M. J. (2000). Dyslexia. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. Tinto, V. (2012). Enhancing student success: Taking the classroom success seriously. The International Journal of First Year in Higher Education, 3(1), 1 3. Wilson, M., & Savery, N. (2012). Stories of resilience: Learning from adult students experiences of studying with dyslexia in tertiary education. Journal of Adult Learning Aotearoa New Zealand, 40, Appendix: Questions asked during participant interviews When and how was dyslexia identified? What words or phrases or ideas would you use to describe what it is like to learn with dyslexia? What differences (if any) do you see between the way you learn with dyslexia and the way others learn? What was it like learning with dyslexia at secondary school? What sort of support/help/encouragement did you have for your learning in secondary school? What do you think the understanding of secondary teachers and learning support people of dyslexia was? How did your learning experiences at secondary school influence your decision to study at university? Did your secondary school experiences influence your selection of courses at university? If so how? Why have you chosen to continue in tertiary study? What were the types of support systems offered to you to help with your learning in secondary study? How were these support systems set up? What was the effect of having these support systems on your learning and success? What sort of learning support do you use in tertiary study now? How did you find out about or set up the learning support systems that you use now? Who are the people who support you now in your learning at university?