Translation Priming With Different Scripts: Masked Priming With Cognates and Noncognates in Hebrew-English Bilinguals

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1 Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Learig, emory, ad Cogitio 1997, Vol. 23, No. 5, Copyright 1997 by the America Psychological Associatio, Ic /97/$3.00 Traslatio With Differet Scripts: asked With Cogates ad Nocogates i Hebrew-Eglish Biliguals Tamar H. Golla ad Keeth I. Forster Uiversity of Arizoa Ram Frost The Hebrew Uiversity Hebrew-Eglish cogates (traslatios similar i meaig ad form) ad ocogates (traslatios similar i meaig oly) were examied i masked traslatio primig. Ehaced primig for cogates was foud with LI (domiat laguage) primes, but ulike previous results, it was ot foud with L2 (odomiat laguage) primes. was also obtaied for ocogates, whereas previous studies showed ustable effects for such stimuli. The authors iterpret the results i a dual-lexico model by suggestig that (a) bom orthographic ad phoological overlap are eeded to establish shared lexical etries for cogates (ad hece also symmetric cogate primig), ad (b) script differeces facilitate rapid access by providig a cue to the lexical processor that directs access to the proper lexico, thus producig stable ocogate primig. The asymmetrical cogate effect obtaied with differet scripts may be attributed to a overreliace o phoology i L2 readig. Oe of the aims of biligual research is to characterize the ature of the coectios betwee the lexical systems i the two laguages. A umber of techiques have bee used to assess the ature of these coectios, for example, crosslaguage primig, traslatio, picture amig, word amig, fragmet completio, cross-laguage Stroop tasks, ad free recall of blocked ad mixed word lists (de Groot, 1992; Smith, 1991;deGroot&Nas, 1991; Kroll& Stewart, 1994; acleod, 1976; Scarborough, Gerard, & Cortese, 1984; Schwaeflugel & Rey, 1986; Tzelgov, Heik, & Leiser, 1990). ost of these studies have suggested that the laguages of the biligual are represeted separately at the level of lexical form ad yet are observably itercoected at a coceptual level (de Groot, 1993; Kroll, 1993). However, debates about the ature of biligual lexical access cotiue, ad the data that speak to these questios have sometimes bee coflictig. For example, cross-laguage repetitio primig techiques have i some cases failed to reveal ay cross-laguage facilitatio (e.g., Kirser, Brow, Abrol, Chadha, & Sharma, 1980; Scarborough et al., 1984), whereas others have obtaied cross-laguage primig but have foud that it is weaker tha withi-laguage primig (Graiger & Beauvillai, 1988). A umber of studies have show that cross-laguage facilitatio is obtaied whe the stimulus oset asychroy (SOA) betwee prime ad target is extremely short (i.e., less tha 300 ms; Altarriba, 1992; Tamar H. Golla ad Keeth I. Forster, Departmet of Psychology, Uiversity of Arizoa; Ram Frost, Departmet of Psychology, The Hebrew Uiversity, Jerusalem, Israel. This research was supported i part by Natioal ultipurpose Research ad Traiig Grat DC014O9 from the Natioal Istitute o Deafess ad Other Commuicatio Disorders ad by a grat from the cdoell-pew Foudatio Cogitive Neuroscieces Program. Correspodece cocerig this article should be addressed to Tamar H. Golla, Departmet of Psychology, Uiversity of Arizoa, Tucso, Arizoa Electroic mail may be set via Iteret to golla@aruba.ccit.arizoa.edu. Che & Ng, 1989; Ji, 1990; Schwaeflugel & Rey, 1986) or whe words across laguages are related orthographically ad phoologically (de Groot & Nas, 1991; Cristoffaii, Kirser, & ilech, 1986; Garcia-Albea, Sachez-Casas, Bradley, & Forster, 1985; Sachez-Casas, Davis, & Garcia- Albea, 1992). Several authors have cautioed that experimetal techiques thought to implicate biligual lexical orgaizatio may be iflueced by variables that do ot reflect automatic processig mechaisms. For example, Kirser, Smith, Lockhart, Kig, ad Jai (1984) showed that cross-laguage repetitio primig could be obtaied oly whe the biliguals were ecouraged to traslate durig the first presetatio of words. Such facilitatio might be accouted for by reactivatio of a episodic memory trace of the traslated versio of the prime. That is, the iitial exposure to the prime lays dow a episodic trace that may or may ot be available for coscious report. Reactivatio of this episodic trace by the target stimulus could be the source of the facilitatio rather tha reactivatio of a shared biligual lexical represetatio per se (see Forster, 1985, ad Forster & Davis, 1984, for a more detailed discussio of episodic cotributios to results i omasked-primig experimets). Thus, it seems more accurate to iterpret this effect as evidece for withi-laguage primig rather tha as evidece for cross-laguage primig. Ifluece from oautomatic or strategic processig seems particularly plausible whe the biligual ature of the task is apparet. Some evidece suggestig that cross-laguage facilitatio ca be strategic i ature is the fact that the proportio of related pairs appears to determie whether primig is obtaied (Keatley, Spiks, & de Gelder, 1994). If primig is depedet o the presece of a high umber of related cross-laguage pairs, the the effect might merely be demostratig the biligual's ability to strategically coect oe laguage with the other rather tha reflectig the orgaizatio of the lexical system. I fact, it has bee suggested that biliguals may have differet (but overlap- 1122

2 pig) processig systems for hadlig situatios i which two laguages are required or i which oly oe laguage is required. Which system is activated, ad whe, may deped o whether the cotext of the experimet (or the eviromet) implies that more tha oe laguage is ivolved (Grosjea & iller, 1994). Oe way to miimize strategic factors is to use a masked primig paradigm i which the prime caot be idetified. I the masked-primig paradigm adopted by Forster ad Davis (1984), a forward mask (e.g., either a dummy word or a patter mask such as ie umber sigs, i.e., UtlftII It It l II) is preseted for 500 ms, followed by the prime for 50 ms, ad the the target is preseted for 500 ms. To distiguish the prime ad the target stimulus as two physically distict evets, the primes are preseted i lowercase letters ad targets are preseted i uppercase. Because of the combied effects of the forward-patter mask ad the backwardmaskig effect of the target stimulus, the prime caot be idetified, ad eve whe directed to try to idetify the prime, participats are uable to perform above chace i decidig whether it was a word or ot (although they do slightly better tha chace at guessig whether it differed from the target or ot; Forster & Davis, 1984; Forster, Davis, Schokecht, & Carter, 1987). It therefore seems ulikely that ay episodic memory trace of the prime is formed, ad it ca be assumed that primig effects are more likely to reflect automatic processes rather tha strategic processes. Studies usig the masked primig techique to ivestigate biligual primig have cosistetly foud that cogates show primig effects. Cogates are traslatio-equivalet words that also share phoological ad orthographic properties across laguages. I cotrast, traslatio-equivalet words that do ot overlap i form (ocogates) show o, or sigificatly reduced, primig (de Groot & Nas, 1991; Garcia-Albea et al., 1985; Sachez-Casas et at, 1992). I some cases, cogate primig across laguages is as strog as it is withi-laguage; for example, rico, the Spaish word for rich, primed the Eglish word rich as strogly as the withi-laguage idetity prime rich (Garcia-Albea et al., 1985; Sachez-Casas et al., 1992). No such effect was obtaied, however, for traslatio-equivalet terms that are ot cogates (e.g., mujer ad woma). Cogate words overlap i form, ad it is therefore possible that ehaced primig for cogates is the result of form-related primig rather tha traslatio primig per se. If this were the case, the eve mooliguals might show similar primig effects. This hypothesis, however, has bee rejected (a) because it has bee show that mooliguals i fact do ot beefit from the form overlap (e.g., rico-rich; Garcia-Albea et al., 1985) ad (b) also because biliguals similarly do ot beefit from oe-letter-differet oword primes (e.g., rict-rlch or rict-rico; Sachez-Casas et al., 1992). Further, the size of the primig effect does ot iteract with the degree of form similarity betwee cogates (e.g., rico-rich vs. torre~tower\ agai suggestig that orthographic overlap is ot the sole factor that produces the cogate effect. This study was desiged to address whether the cogate effect may be purely phoological or whether it is the joit ASKED TRANSLATION PRIING 1123 effect of overlap i both orthography ad phoology that is crucial. There is some evidece to suggest that phoological effects i visual word recogitio arise oly whe there is joit similarity i both orthography ad phoology (e.g., Coltheart, Patterso, & Leahy, 1994), ad this may provide a importat clue to the ature of the access mechaism. Oe way to examie this issue is to elimiate orthographic overlap by usig laguages with completely differet scripts. This procedure was followed i the preset study, which used Hebrew-Eglish cogates that overlap i phoological form ad meaig but ot i orthographic form because the Hebrew script bears o relatioship at all i visual form to the roma script used i Eglish. If Hebrew-Eglish biliguals also show stroger primig for cogates tha for ocogates, the it ca be iferred that orthography plays o role i producig the cogate effect. This result would, of course, be predicted from the view that visual word recogitio is mediated exclusively by phoological represetatios (Lukatela, Carello, & Tfarvey, 1990; Lukatela & Turvey, 1990a, 1990b). To test for a cogate-ocogate differece i a Hebrew- Eglish experimet, it is ecessary to use words that are perhaps more accurately called "loa words," because may cogates are actually borrowed from Eglish. Hebrew is historically uique because it was revived as a spoke laguage early i the 20th cetury after havig bee used solely for religious purposes for hudreds of years. For this reaso, the laguage lacked may lexical items for moder termiology. Although some moder words were created by adaptig a Hebrew root morphologically, may moder words were simply borrowed from Eglish (e.g., the Hebrew word for televisio is televizya). Noetheless, these words are etirely itegrated ito the laguage ad are used i both iformal ad formal settigs (e.g., they are prited i ewspapers ad are spoke by ewscasters o televisio ad radio). I fact, Hebrew-Eglish biliguals who lear both laguages at the same time may easily acquire the borrowed words i the cotext of Hebrew before they lear that the Eglish traslatio is very similar. I cotrast to the borrowed Hebrew-Eglish cogates, Spaish-Eglish ad Dutch-Eglish cogates share a commo root for historical reasos ad, as a result, are similar i both phoological ad orthographic form (e.g., rico-rich). As ca be see i Figure 1, there is o overlap betwee the Hebrew ad Eglish orthographies. Although they are both alphabetic scripts, they differ i may ways: The characters are visually quite distict, ad there is o oe-to-oe correspodece betwee them. I additio, Hebrew is writte from right to left, ad most vowel iformatio is actually omitted from writte words. The vowel iformatio is sometimes writte uder the letters i the form of diacritical marks (poits ad dashes), though these usually appear oly i childre's texts, prayer books, ad poetry (Frost &Beti, 1992). I Experimets 1 ad 2 we tested biliguals i a LI (the domiat laguage), a L2 (the odomiat laguage), ad a cross-laguage coditio that cotaied LI primes ad L2 targets. I Experimet 1 we tested Hebrew-domiat biliguals, ad i Experimet 2 we tested Eglish-domiat

3 1124 GOLLAN, FORSTER, AND FROST L N S? P/F K? R SH T 7 D 1 V )> 9 ft P 14 is IS A B/V G D H V/O Z? T Y K/? T i Figure 1. The Hebrew alphabet. Letters are umbered from first to last. Letters without a umber are alterate versios of the letter directly above (these versios are used whe the letter appears at the ed of a word). Eglish letters that roughly correspod to the Hebrew letters appear to the left. Questio marks idicate letters that represet souds that do ot exist i Eglish. A few Hebrew letters are ot comparable to a sigle Eglish letter. Letter 17, for example, is sometimes /p/ ad sometimes lil. biliguals. Thus, the cross-laguage coditio i Experimet 1 had Hebrew primes ad Eglish targets (H-E), whereas i Experimet 2 the primes were i Eglish ad the targets were i Hebrew (E-H). The task was lexical decisio; there were two withi-laguage primig coditios, ad oe cross-laguage primig coditio. The coditios were preseted i three blocked lists (H-H, E-E, ad a crosslaguage list). The withi-laguage coditios had Eglish primes followed by Eglish targets (E-E) ad Hebrew primes followed by Hebrew targets (H-H). Because the primes were masked, the participats were likely uable to tell whether they were beig tested i oe laguage aloe or i two laguages o ay give trial i ay give list. The withi-laguage coditios were icluded for several reasos. First, the withi-laguage data allowed corroboratio of self-reported laguage domiace with a more objective depedet variable. Secod, the masked primig paradigm had ot previously bee tested with Hebrew stimuli, so it was importat to replicate the masked-primig effect withi Hebrew before attemptig cross-laguage primig with Hebrew primes ad Eglish targets. Third, it was importat to establish that participats were able to beefit from a L2 prime i the withi-laguage coditio before attemptig to iterpret cross-laguage primig. > tf 7 9 ;o // Fially, if the differeces betwee cogates ad ocogates i cross-laguage primig are to be attributed to the ature of the coectios betwee words across laguages, it is ecessary to first establish that cogates ad ocogates are comparable i a withi-laguage primig settig. Hebrew cogates (or loa words) differ from other Hebrew words i that they are ot composed of productive morphological roots. For this reaso Hebrew cogates ted to be loger ad ofte cotai more cosoatal vowels (which are roughly aalogous to the cosoat-vowel y i Eglish). Withi-laguage data from the H-H list allowed compariso of Hebrew cogate targets with Hebrew ocogate targets, thus revealig ay possible differeces i the magitude of primig effects. To cotrol for ay uusual characteristics that cogates writte i Hebrew characters might have, we costructed half of the owords i each of the two sets with Hebrew targets by chagig two letters of cogate words that were ot used i the word-item sets. The rest of the owords i all three sets were costructed by chagig two letters of ocogate items that were ot used i the word-item sets. ethod Experimet 1: From LI to L2 i Hebrew-Domiat Biliguals Participats. Forty Hebrew-domiat Hebrew-Eglish biligual udergraduates at The Hebrew Uiversity i Jerusalem received course credit or were paid for their participatio i the study. Participats reported havig bee exposed to both laguages either at home or at school (or both) from a early age. They completed a laguage-history questioaire i which they specified their domiat laguage. Self-reported laguage domiace was corroborated with domiace i reactio times ad error rates from the withi-laguage lexical-decisio data i Hebrew ad i Eglish (i.e., those who were cosidered Hebrew-domiat had faster reactio times ad lower error rates o lexical decisio i Hebrew, whereas the data showed the opposite patter for the Eglishdomiats i Experimet 2).' aterials ad desig. Three lists of items were used. Each list cotaied 64 words ad 64 owords. Oe of the lists was a cross-laguage list cosistig of Hebrew primes followed by Eglish targets (H-E). The other two lists were withi-laguage lists, oe cotaiig Hebrew primes followed by Hebrew targets (H-H) ad the other cotaiig Eglish primes followed by Eglish targets (E-E). Withi each list, all primes were i the same laguage, ad all targets were i the same laguage. To mimic the switch from lowercase primes to uppercase targets ormally used with masked primig i Eglish, we used a cursive fot for the Hebrew primes ad a prit fot for the Hebrew targets i the H-H list. Figure 2 shows the cursive characters compared with the prited characters. It ca be see that the majority of the letters are quite differet i visual form across script. Because each participat was tested o all three lists, the list order was rotated i a Lati 1 There were oly three cases throughout the experimets reported i this article i which self-reported domiace did ot accurately predict the relative performace i lexical decisio for LI ad L2. I these cases priority was give to the objective measure.

4 ASKED TRANSLATION PRIING 1125 L N S 7 P/F K R SH T J 0 o 1 V a P H P J V i e ;* ts ;«;« A B/V G D H V/O z? T Y K/? N 1 >? ft ' Figure 2. The prit (o left) ad cursive (o right) scripts of the Hebrew alphabet. The cursive script was used for Hebrew primes i the H-H (Hebrew primes followed by Hebrew targets) list. Prit characters were used for Hebrew targets i all lists, ad o cursive letters were used i ay of die cross-laguage lists. square desig that cotrolled for positio effects such that each list was preseted i every positio (first, secod, ad third) a equal umber of times. The word lists cosisted of cogates ad ocogate traslatio equivalets that were comparable as far as possible i legth (although Hebrew words ted to be shorter because the vowels are omitted) ad i frequecy (i.e., the frequecies of the Eglish traslatios of Hebrew targets were roughly matched accordig to the orms provided by Ku era ad Fracis, 1967). Each set of 64 target words cosisted of 32 cogates ad 32 ocogate traslatio equivalets. The average frequecy cout of the targets i the E-E list was 15.4 (SD ~ 28.8) for cogates ad 18.5 (SD = 28.9) for ocogates; the estimated frequecy i the H-H list was 23.0 (SD = 40.6) for cogates ad 18.9 (SD = 33.4) for ocogates; ad i the H-E list it was 19.5 (SD = 28.9) for cogates ad 16.6 (SD 24.4) for ocogates. For each of the lists two experimetal versios were created so that a target preceded by a repetitio (or traslatio) prime i oe versio was preceded by a frequecy matched urelated cotrol prime i the other. Thus, each prime ad each target was see oly oce by each biligual. Table 1 shows a example of the stimuli used i each of the three lists. Each of the three blocked word lists cosisted of four coditios with 16 items i each coditio. The first coditio, cogate repetitio, had cogate targets preceded by idetity primes (repetitio primes for H-H ad E-E, ad traslatio primes for H-E); the secod coditio, cogate cotrol, had the cogate targets preceded by urelated primes; the third coditio, ocogate repetitio, had ocogate targets preceded by idetity primes 2 «5 d 7 9 ;; (agai, repetitio primes for H-H ad E-E, ad traslatio primes for H-E); ad the fourth coditio, ocogate cotrol, had ocogate words preceded by urelated cotrol primes. The owords for each list were costructed by chagig two letters of words matched i legth to the targets i that list. I the withi-laguage lists, half of the oword targets were preceded by the same oword (to test if owords show idetity primig), ad the other half of the owords targets were preceded by a urelated cotrol word. Thus, the lexicality of the target was ot predictable o the basis of the lexicality of the prime. I the cross-laguage lists all of the primes were words (for both word ad oword targets). The owords were preceded by the traslatio of the word that had bee used to create the oword. Thus, form primig was tested i H-H ad E-E but ot i the cross-laguage lists. For example, the Hebrew word for obsessio is obsesya. From obsesya the oword ogsetya was created ad preseted i Hebrew characters i the list E-H. This oword was preceded by obsessio writte i roma characters. This was the case both for cogate-based owords (e.g., the prime obsessio preseted i roma characters followed by the oword-target ogsetya preseted i Hebrew characters) ad for ocogate-based owords (e.g., the prime athem preseted i roma characters followed by the oword-target timol also preseted i Hebrew characters). Procedure ad apparatus. Items were preseted o a computercotrolled video display by usig the DASTR software, developed by K. I. Forster ad J. C. Forster at the Uiversity of Arizoa, which sychroizes the timig of the display with the positio of the video raster. (Iformatio about DASTR software ca be accessed at the followig World Wide Web site: ~kforstet/dmastr). Items were cetered o the scree. Each item was preceded by a forward-maskig stimulus that was preseted Table 1 Examples of aterials Used Coditio E-E H-H H-E E-E H-H H-E prime rodet jror> (birkayim) "kees" TW (gargir) "berry" plaet tftfdo (kaftor) "butto" (sigalit) "violet" Repetitio/ traslatio prime Cogates buker (piramida) "pyramid" (feelter) "filter" Nocogates desert (eshkolit) "grapefruit" fitk (armo) "castle" Target BUNKER TTPm>0 (piramida) "pyramid" FILTER DESERT rcfrsyvh (eshkolit) "grapefruit" CASTLE Note. The actual experimetal stimuli were preseted i Hebrew characters. Prouciatios are eclosed i paretheses. Eglish traslatios appear i quotatio marks. E = Eglish; H = Hebrew.

5 1126 GOLLAN, FORSTER, AND FROST for 500 ms (#########). The istructios idicated that this stimulus was a cue sigalig that a word was about to appear. Immediately followig the forward mask, primes appeared for 50 ms, ad the the target appeared for 500 ms. At the completio of each trial, feedback was provided about speed ad accuracy. The biliguals were tested oe at a time i a dimly lit testig room ad were istructed to press oe respose key with the right had whe they saw a word ad to press aother respose key with the left had whe they saw a oword. Sixtee practice items were preseted at the begiig of each experimet so we could observe performace ad ecourage quick but accurate resposes. A brief rest was provided after each of the three lists. After the experimet, each biligual was questioed about ay awareess of the prime. A demostratio of the masked-primig coditios used i this experimet ca be dowloaded from the followig web site: http ^Ai.arizoa.edu/^-kforster/primig/gff.htm. Results eas ad stadard deviatios of respose times (RTs) for correct resposes were calculated for each subject ad for each item i each of the experimetal coditios. All RTs more tha two stadard deviatios above or below the mea for each participat were replaced with the appropriate cutoff value. Biliguals who made more tha 20s (averaged over coditios) were replaced. Separate aalyses of variace (ANOVAs) were calculated, oe by usig subject meas (Ft) ad the other by usig item meas (F 2 ). The aalyses icluded three variables: group (participat groups i the subject aalysis, item groups i the item aalysis), cogate status (cogate traslatios vs. ocogate traslatios), ad primig (related vs. urelated). The first variable was itroduced by the couterbalacig procedure, ad it simply extracted ay variace that was due to this procedure. This was a orepeated variable i both aalyses (see Pollatsek & Well, 1995, for a discussio of the advatages of this commoly used procedure). The secod variable was a repeated measures variable i the subject aalysis but ot i the item aalysis, ad the third variable was repeated i both aalyses. The.05 level of sigificace was adopted throughout Awareess of primes. Durig the exit iterview, participats were asked specifically if they ever oticed words i two laguages beig preseted i rapid successio. All participats i Experimet 1 ad i the experimets that follow (makig a total of 140 participats) were surprised to lear of the presece of the cross-laguage primes ad, i fact, had ot oticed ay primes i ay of the lists. Oe participat reported oticig "somethig fuy" ad was replaced. Thus, although participats kew they were recruited for the experimet because of their kowledge of Hebrew ad Eglish, they did ot kow that oe of the lists was activatig both laguage systems simultaeously. Withi-laguage repetitio primig. The upper sectio of Table 2 shows the results for the H-H ad E-E lists. It ca be see that substatial repetitio primig effects for word targets were obtaied i both LI ad L2 but that the effects for oword targets were egligible. These results cofirm that masked primig ca be obtaied i Hebrew ad, critically, that these biliguals were sufficietly competet i Eglish to be able to process ad beefit from a 50-ms prime i their less domiat laguage (L2). The absece of Table 2 ea Lexical-Decisio Times (i illisecods) ad Percet Error Rates Obtaied With Hebrew-Domiat Biliguals i Withi-Laguage ad Cross-Laguage (LI -12) Lists i Experimet 1 Coditio Repetitio Repetitio Traslatio Cogate Ll-Ll (H-H) L2-L2 (E-E) L1-L2 (H-E) Target Nocogate l terror Noword * Note. LI = domiat laguage; L2 = odomiat laguage; H = Hebrew; E = Eglish. a Noword targets ot primed; see text. primig for oword targets cofirms fidigs from earlier studies (e.g., Forster et al., 1987) ad demostrates that the primig is lexical i ature. I the H-H (Ll-Ll) list, the 31-ms repetitio primig averaged over cogates ad ocogates for word targets was sigificat, F^l, 38) = 44.64, SE = 856; F 2 (l, 60) = 56.33, SE = 483, but there were o sigificat differeces betwee cotrol ad repetitio trials i the error aalysis, Fiih 38) = 2.27, SE = 42; F 2 (l, 60) = 2.00, SE = 39. I the E-E (L2-L2) list, a 44-ms primig effect averaged over cogates ad ocogates for word targets was observed, Fi(h 38) = 88, SE = 887; F 2 (U 60) = 53, SE = 1,408, ad there was also a sigificat effect i the error aalysis, F t (l, 38) = 6.26, SE = 44; F 2 (l, 60) , SE = 37. There were o sigificat withi-laguage differeces i the magitude of primig effects betwee cogate ad ocogates i LI (H-H), Fi(l, 38) < 1; F 2 (l, 60) = 1.05, SE = 484; or i L2 (E-E), both F 1( F 2 < 1, demostratig that cogates have o special properties with respect to withi-laguage primig. However, i the subject aalysis, RTs to cogate targets were 11 ms slower tha ocogates i LI (H-H), F,(l, 38) , SE = 691; F 2 (l, 60) , SE = 3,461. The errors aalysis (H-H, Lj) showed the opposite patter with more errors to ocogate targets, suggestig a speed-accuracy trade-off, but agai this differece was sigificat i the subjects aalysis oly, Fi(l, 38) = 6.8, SE = 63; F 2 (l, 60) = 2.60, SE = 133. I L2 (E-E), RTs to cogates were 36 ms slower, ad this aalysis was sigificat by both subjects ad items, F,(l, 38) = 66.90, SE = 758; F 2 (l, 60) = 7.62, SE = 5,918. The error patter (E-E, L2) was i the same directio as the RT differece; there were more errors for cogate targets, but this time the differece was oly sigificat by

6 ASKED TRANSLATION PRIING 1127 subjects ad ot by items, F^l, 38) = 8.21, SE = 52; F 2 (l, 60) = 1.77, SE = 194. Uexpectedly, whe collapsed over cogates ad ocogates, repetitio primig was 13 ms weaker i Hebrew tha it was i Eglish, ad this differece proved to be sigificat, Fi(l, 38) = 4.76, SE = 412; F 2 (l, 124) = 6.36, SE = 923. For oword targets, there was o differece at all i RTs for the H-H list as a fuctio of prime type, ad for the E-E list, the effect was 2 ms (F x, F 2 < 1). The error aalysis showed that there was o sigificat effect i the H-H list (F x, F 2 < 1), ad i the E-E list, a tred toward a ihibitory effect was obtaied, F,(l, 38) = 3.27, SE = 33, p =.08; F 2 (l, 62) = 3.70, SE = 48, p =.06. Traslatio primig. The bottom of Table 2 shows the results i the cross-laguage list i which the prime was i Hebrew (LI) ad the target was i Eglish (L2). Sigificat facilitatio effects were obtaied across the two laguages, ad there is some idicatio of a special effect for cogates, because the traslatio primig effect for cogates (53 ms) was larger tha primig for ocogates (36 ms). The overall primig effect (45 ms) was sigificat, F^l, 38) = 49.44, SE = 1,591; F 2 (l, 52) = 76.71, SE = 852, with a sigificat effect i the error aalysis as well, F t (l, 38) = 9.51, SE = 84; F 2 (l, 52) = 12.57, SE = 51. The iteractio betwee cogate status ad primig was i the expected directio, but although it was sigificat i the items aalysis, F 2 (l, 60) , SE = 852, it oly approached sigificace i the subjects aalysis, Fi(l, 38) = 2.96, SE - 1,076, p =.09. Ulike the patter see with Eglish targets i withi-laguage primig, the RTs to cogate targets (collapsed over related ad urelated coditios) were 33 ms faster i this aalysis, Fi(l, 28) = 19.15, SE = 1,656, but this time the differece was sigificat oly i the subjects aalysis, F 2 (l, 60) = 2.51, SE = 13,154. Similarly, the aalysis by errors showed fewer errors to cogate items, ad the differece was sigificat by subjects, Fi(l, 28) = 9.21, SE = 78, but ot by items, F 2 (l, 60) = 1.98, SE = 387. I additio, the effect of traslatio primig for ocogates aloe (36 ms) was sigificat both for RTs, Fi(l, 38) = 17.05, SE = 1,472; F 2 (l, 30) = 18.27, SE = 934, ad for the error aalysis, Fi(l, 38) , SE = 79; F 2 (l, 30) = 8.36, SE = 61. No data are reported for oword targets across laguage because obviously there are o traslatio-equivalet Hebrew-Eglish owords. Discussio Withi-laguage repetitio primig. The purpose of the withi-laguage primig coditios was to cofirm that masked primig effects could be obtaied i both LI ad L2. Sigificat repetitio primig was obtaied i the H-H list, idicatig that the masked primig techique is effective i Hebrew. Further, primig for cogates writte i Hebrew characters did ot differ from primig effects for ocogates writte i Hebrew characters, demostratig that these stimuli have o special status with respect to reactio times or primig withi Hebrew (H-H). The same patter was show for Eglish; cogates ad ocogates showed the same amout of primig withi-laguage. Because sigificat primig was obtaied i the E-E list, these results establish that the Hebrew-domiat biliguals were able to process rapidly preseted Eglish primes. It is iterestig that there was some idicatio that cogate targets were more difficult to process i Eglish (L2), with RTs for cogates (collapsed over related ad urelated coditios) beig 36 ms slower tha RTs for ocogates, possibly suggestig that for these biliguals cogate terms, which are actually borrowed from Eglish, are really cosidered as Hebrew (LI) words. However, further discussio of this possibility is postpoed util the results from later experimets are preseted. There were o primig effects observed for oword targets. Fially, repetitio primig was weaker i Hebrew tha i Eglish, perhaps either because of laguage domiace or because of a uique characteristic of primig i Hebrew. Traslatio primig. Stroger primig for cogates tha for ocogates was obtaied, but the effect was sigificat i the items aalysis oly. This patter of results is uusual i laguage research, i which treatmet-by-items variace is usually larger tha treatmet-by-subjects variace, ad hece it is usually the item aalysis that fails to reach sigificace. The implicatio is that more primig was observed for cogates tha for ocogates but oly for a limited subset of the biliguals. It may be that i the absece of orthographic overlap, a robust ehaced primig effect for cogates will oly be obtaied with certai types of biliguals. Part of the reaso for the absece of ay clear differece betwee primig for cogates ad ocogates is the fact that strog traslatio primig (36 ms) was obtaied for ocogates. Previous studies have show either o primig or weak primig i this coditio (de Groot & Nas, 1991; Garcia-Altjea et al, 1985; Sachez-Casas et al, 1992). This fidig is of cosiderable iterest ad may be liked to the fact that differet scripts were used i the two laguages. It should be oted that the existece of ay cross-laguage primig effects with Hebrew ad Eglish is especially impressive because Hebrew is read right to left ad Eglish is read left to right. The "set" would be the directio of readig appropriate for the target (withi a list, all targets were either Hebrew or Eglish), but evidetly the processig directio ca be reversed for the prime despite the fact that the participat is uaware of its existece. This implies that the directio of readig must be cotrolled purely by the ature of the script itself. Otherwise, i a H-E list, where the targets are read left to right, precious time would be wasted i attemptig to process the masked Hebrew prime stimulus from left to right, ad this would reduce the possibility of primig. Fially, the results of the exit iterview cofirmed that the use of differet scripts did ot make the prime more accessible to awareess tha i previous applicatios of this techique. Of course, this is ot to say that a more careful assessmet by usig a forced-choice testig procedure might ot reveal slightly better-tha-chace detectio performace (e.g., was the prime i Hebrew or Eglish?). However, it is ot clear whether this would ecessarily establish liguistic awareess as opposed to visual awareess, because it might be possible to base a Hebrew-Eglish judgmet o very

7 1128 GOLLAN, FORSTER, AND FROST fragmetary perceptual iformatio, without ay awareess at all of the liguistic properties of the prime. I the ext experimet, a group of Eglish-domiat Hebrew-Eglish biliguals was tested i the same coditios (i.e., Ll-Ll, L2-L2, ad L1-L2) to cofirm that the same patter of results would be obtaied regardless of the target laguage. Experimet 2: From LI to L2 i Eglish-Domiat Biliguals I this experimet, a group of Eglish-domiat biliguals was tested o the same three lists used i Experimet 1, except that the primes ad the targets from the crosslaguage list were reversed to maitai the L1-L2 prime-totarget relatioship. ethod Participats. A group of 30 Eglish-domiat Hebrew- Eglish biliguals was recruited, all of whom were ative Eglish speakers, ad all of whom had bee exposed to both laguages either at home or at school (or both) from a early age. These biliguals either voluteered or were paid for their participatio i the study. Some were America udergraduates studyig for 1 year at The Hebrew Uiversity i Jerusalem, some had moved to live i Israel permaetly withi the past few years, ad some were America teachers of Hebrew who had lived i the Uited States for most of their lives. Each biligual completed a laguagedomiace questioaire, ad oce agai (as i Experimet 1) their self-reported domiace was corroborated with domiace i RTs ad error rates from withi-laguage lexical decisio i both Hebrew ad Eglish. aterials ad desig. The materials were the same as i Experimet 1, except that the cross-laguage list H-E was switched with a ew list E-H. To create the list E-H we simply reversed the stimuli from H-E such that the primes that were preseted i H-E became the targets for E-H ad vice-versa. Thus, because these biliguals were Eglish domiat, the primes i the cross-laguage list were i LI (E) ad the targets were i L2 (H). Procedure. This was idetical to the procedure used i Experimet 1. Results Two items had to be elimiated from the aalysis of the list with Hebrew targets because of spellig ambiguity (some cogates may be spelled i more tha oe way, ad these stimuli geerated close to 50s). 2 To maitai equal umbers of items i each coditio, we elimiated a additioal two items from each coditio (items with high error rates were chose o the assumptio that these items may ot have bee familiar to this group). The H-H list was left with 14 items i each coditio (however, the elimiatio of these items did ot sigificatly chage the results i terms of effect size or patter). Biliguals with more tha 25s (averaged over coditios) were replaced. Withi-laguage repetitio primig. The upper sectio of Table 3 shows the results i the withi-laguage lists (E-E, H-H). Sigificat primig for word targets (47 ms) was obtaied i LI (E-E), F : (l, 28) = 54.79, SE = 1,164; Table 3 ea Lexical-Decisio Times (i illisecods) ad Percet Error Rates Obtaied With Eglish-Domiat Biliguals for Withi-Laguage ad Cross-Laguage (LI -12) Lists i Experimet 2 Coditio Repetitio Repetitio Traslatio Cogate , , Ll-Ll (E-E) L2-L2 (H-H) , L1-L2 (E-H) Target Nocogate * 9b error Noword ,285 1, a Note. LI ~ domiat laguage; L2 = odomiat laguage; H - Hebrew; E = Eglish. a Noword targets ot primed; see text. F 2 (l, 60) , SE = 1,359, ad there were also fewer errors i the related coditio, F^l, 38) = 4.11, SE = 50; F 2 (l, 60) = 6.61, SE = 33. Sigificat primig was also obtaied for the L2 (H-H) list (37 ms), F x (l, 28) = 6.06, SE = 6,770; F 2 (\, 52) = 7.70, SE = 6,990, with o sigificat differeces i the error aalysis, F : (l, 28) = 1.70, SE = 42; F 2 < 1. There was o sigificat differece betwee the amout of primig obtaied for cogates ad ocogates i LI (E-E), F,(l, 28) = 2.03, SE = 395; F 2 < 1, or i L2 (H-H), F, < 1; F 2 (l, 52) = 2.44, SE = 6,990. It is also oteworthy that i this experimet the withi-laguage primig effects for cogates were actually umerically smaller tha the effects for ocogates i both LI ad L2. As for the Hebrew-domiat biliguals i Experimet 1, collapsed over related ad urelated coditios, the RTs to cogates i Eglish were slower for these Eglish-domiat biliguals as well (this time by 38 ms), F^l, 28) = 81.54, SE = 539; F 2 (l, 60) = 9.63, SE = 6,374. The errors to Eglish targets showed a similar patter; there were sigificatly more errors to cogate targets i the subjects aalysis, F L (1. 28) = 9.12, SE = 30, with a tred i the same directio i the item errors, F 2 (l, 60) = 2.86, 2 These same two items were elimiated from Experimet 3. I Experimets 1 ad 4 this problem was corrected. For purposes of presetatio, the experimets i this article are preseted i a order (1,2,3,4) that differs from the order that was actually carried out i this research project (i.e., 3, 2, 1, 4). The ambiguous items that were elimiated from the aalysis i Experimet 2 were also elimiated i Experimet 3 ad were later replaced with oambiguous items i Experimets 1 ad 4.

8 ASKED TRANSLATION PRIING 1129 SE = 102. The patter i Hebrew was similar to that observed for the Hebrew-domiat participats i Experimet 1: RTs to cogates i Hebrew were 15 ms slower, but this time o differece was sigificat (both F\ ad F 2 < 1). There were, however, sigificatly more errors i the subjects aalysis, Fj(l, 28) = 6.89, SE = 125, but ot i the items aalysis, F 2 (l, 52) = 1.52, SE = 652. For oword targets, the 9-ms primig effect i the LI list was ot sigificat, F^l, 28) = 2.73, SE = 404; F 2 (l, 62) = 1.51, SE = 1,357, but there was a sigificat ihibitory effect i the errors, F,(l, 28) = 7.73, SE = 22; F 2 (l, 62) = 8.02, SE = 44. I the L2 list, a ihibitory effect was agai observed, but this time it was the RTs that showed the effect (-51 ms), Fi(l, 28) = 11.41, SE = 3,423; F 2 (l, 62) = 8.66, SE = 17,116. For the errors, o sigificat effect was obtaied, (F u F 2 < 1). As i Experimet 1, the overall amout of primig i Hebrew, which was ow L2 rather tha LI, was smaller tha i Eglish, but this time the differece was ot sigificat (both Fs < 1). Traslatio primig. The bottom of Table 3 shows the results i the cross-laguage list, i which the prime was i Eglish (LI) ad the target was i Hebrew (L2). As ca be see, the primig effects were very substatial ad were larger for cogates tha for ocogates. Overall, the primig effect of 97 ms was sigificat, Fi(l, 28) = 29.43, SE = 9,580; F 2 (l, 52) = 29.90, SE = 8,053, ad there was also a sigificat effect i the errors aalysis, F x (1,28) = 14.48, SE = 153; F 2 (l, 52) = 20.84, SE = 99. The effect of primig for cogates aloe was sigificat, Fi(l, 28) = 33.94, SE = 8,962; F 2 (l, 26) = 31.26, SE = 9,187, ad the effect of primig for ocogates aloe was sigificat i the subjects aalysis ad margially sigificat by items, Fi(l, 28) = 5.95, SE = 6,686; F 2 (l, 26) = 3.61, SE - 6,919, p.07. Of most importace, there was a sigificat differece betwee the amout of primig obtaied for cogate items (142 ms) ad ocogates (52 ms), Fi(l, 28) = 10.21, SE = 6,068; F 2 (l, 52) = 8.86, SE = 8,053. This iteractio effect was also apparet i the errors aalysis, although it was sigificat oly i the items aalysis, F,(l, 28) = 3.86, SE = 127, p =.06; F 2 (l, 52) = 4.67,AfS = 99. Of ote is the fact that facilitatio effects for L2 cogate targets were greater whe the primes were the LI traslatios tha whe same-laguage repetitio primes were preseted. This implies that L2 cogates are best accessed through their LI traslatios. This patter was ot obtaied i Experimet 1 ad therefore must be iterpreted with great cautio. It may be that L2 cogates are best accessed through LI oly i earlier stages of proficiecy. Discussio The Eglish-domiat biliguals show the same patter as that of the Hebrew-domiat biliguals i Experimet 1. There are clear primig effects i the withi-laguage coditios ad clear traslatio primig effects for both cogates ad ocogates i the cross-laguage coditio. However, ulike the Hebrew-domiat biliguals, the preset group shows a much stroger (ad sigificatly greater) traslatio primig effect for cogates (142 ms) tha for ocogates (52 ms). Although this result cofirms previous fidigs of stroger primig for cogates (de Groot & Nas, 1991; Garcia-Albea et al., 1985; Sachez-Casas et al., 1992), it evertheless differs from the expected patter i both the magitude of the primig effects ad the differece betwee them. I fact, i the preset Experimet 2, traslatio primig for cogates was stroger tha withi-laguage repetitio primig. It might be suggested that these uusual results are due to the fact that the overall RTs i this experimet were cosiderably loger (as ca be see by comparig Tables 2 ad 3), ad this allowed uusually large primig to emerge. To determie whether this was the case, we carried out a post hoc aalysis. If oly the slowest participats are resposible for this effect, the we might expect "ormal" primig for the fastest biliguals (typically, the maximum masked primig effect is approximately ms; e.g., see Forster & Davis, 1984; Forster et al., 1987; Graiger, Cole, & Segui, 1991). Accordigly, the primig effects for the 14 fastest biliguals were computed (mea RT was 868 ms vs. 1,019 ms for the remaider). The data for this group showed a patter of primig effects very similar to that of the group as a whole, with a sigificat traslatio primig effect of 150 ms for cogates ad 54 ms for ocogates. This time the effect for ocogates was sigificat i both, F^l, 12) = 8.76, SE = 2,380, ad F 2 (l, 26) = 5.99, SE = 5,556. Thus, we have grouds for rejectig the hypothesis that the exceptioally large primig effects were due to slower overall performace. The emergece of a exaggerated ehaced primig effect for cogates i this experimet ad the directio of the effects obtaied i Experimet 1 idicate that superior primig for cogates ca still be obtaied whe the two laguages have differet scripts. However, recall that oly some of the biliguals i Experimet 1 showed a stroger effect for cogates as idicated by the fact that the iteractio effect geeralized across items but ot subjects. The reaso for this differece betwee the two experimets may have to do with proficiecy i L2. The participats i Experimet 1 were more balaced biliguals tha the participats i Experimet 2, as show by the larger discrepacy betwee overall RTs ad error rates i LI ad L2 (see Table 4). It is possible that the icrease i traslatio primig from LI to L2 depeds to some degree o there Table 4 ea Overall Respose Times (i illisecods) ad Percet Error Rates for LI ad 12 Targets for the Hebrew-Domiat ad Eglish-Domiat Biliguals i Experimets 1 ad 2, Demostratig Degree of Domiace Target LI L2 Differece Note. Hebrew domiat Eglish domiat 635 1, LI = domiat laguage; L2 - odomiat laguage.

9 1130 GOLLAN, FORSTER, AND FROST beig a marked differece i stregth betwee LI ad L2 represetatios, or cogate status may oly matter whe L2 represetatios are less developed. ore specifically, the phoological overlap betwee prime ad target may be critical oly with a L2 target. If so, the it should be the case that the biliguals i Experimet 1 who showed the largest differece i traslatio primig betwee cogates ad ocogates would be those who were Least proficiet il2. To test this hypothesis, we carried out a post hoc aalysis o the cross-laguage list from Experimet 1 by selectig biliguals with high error rates i L2 o the assumptio that those who make more errors are less-balaced biliguals. Error rates i lexical decisio are a better idicator of proficiecy tha RTs because RTs reflect additioal cogitive processes that are ot ecessarily related to biligualism (e.g., speed of decisio makig). Thirtee of the biliguals i the iitial aalysis were icluded i the post hoc aalysis, ad 9 who were previously rejected (for havig error rates that were cosidered to be too high) were also icluded i the reaalysis. This produced a group of biliguals that had a error rate greater tha or equal to 20% (the rage was 20% to 37%). Table 5 shows the idividual meas for this compariso. Also show i Table 5 is a aalysis that icluded biliguals with RTs more comparable to those see i the post hoc aalysis reported above (at the begiig of this Discussio sectio). I the aalysis of biliguals with high error rates, the differece betwee traslatio primig effects for cogates ad ocogates icreased from 17 ms to 52 ms, ad the iteractio effect was ow sigificat both by subjects, Fi (1, 20) = 17.21, SE = 858, ad by items, F 2 (l, 60) = 12.06, SE = 1,499. Note that the largest differece i RTs was observed for the cogate items that were preceded by traslatio primes. This is cosistet with the hypothesis that cogate status has a larger impact o primig for less balaced biliguals. Because the effect for errors seems to go i the opposite directio i this reaalysis, this effect should be iterpreted with some cautio. However, the effect for errors was ot sigificat, Fj(l, 20) = 1.66, SE = 61; Table 5 ea Lexical-Decisio Times (i illisecods) ad Percet Error Rates i a Post Hoc Aalysis of Cross-Laguage for Biliguals With High Error Rates Versus Biliguals With Loger ea Respose Times (RTs) i Experimet 1 Coditio Traslatio Biliguals with high error rates ( 22) Biliguals with loger RTs ( = 22) Cogates Nocogates Cogates Nocogates Note. Biliguals with high error rates had greater tha 20% errors. Biliguals with loger mea RTs had RTs greater tha 723 ms but less tha 20s. F 2 (l, 60) = 1.57, SE = 92. It is iterestig that biliguals with loger RTs (rage of mea RT was 723 to 952 ms ad rage of mea error rate was 7% to 19%) who showed sigificat cross-laguage primig overall, Fi(l, 10) = 37.52, SE = 1,120; F 2 (l, 60) = 16.64, SE = 8,376, did ot show the same patter (i.e., more primig for cogates). I fact, they showed a osigificat tred i the opposite directio (both Fs < 1). These post hoc aalyses reiforce the coclusio that stroger primig effects for cogates are foud for less balaced biliguals (as measured by error rates) ad that loger RTs for cogates do ot produce ehaced primig. As i Experimet 1, the results of Experimet 2 demostrate a clear traslatio primig effect for ocogates, a result that differs from the expected patter based o previous ivestigatios of cross-laguage masked primig that used laguages with the same script (de Groot & Nas, 1991; Garcia-Albea et al., 1985; Sachez-Casas et al., 1992). This result strogly implies that differeces i script may play a role i traslatio primig for ocogates. The most obvious explaatio is that the variatio i script somehow icreases the efficiecy of access for the prime. The very short SOA used i the masked-primig techique clearly limits the time available for processig of the prime, ad ay factor that delays the recogitio process should reduce the amout of primig. I a cross-laguage experimet, oe factor that might delay recogitio is ucertaity about which lexico to access (assumig that each laguage has its ow distict lexico). I the absece of a differece i script across laguages, the reader may iitially attempt to access the prime i the lexico of the target laguage (recall that the reader is uaware that cross-laguage stimuli are beig preseted), thereby reducig the opportuity for primig to take place. But where there is a clear differece i the script betwee the two laguages, such a error would ot occur. I a H-E list, the fact that the prime is writte i Hebrew characters guaratees that the Hebrew lexico is accessed first. However, this hypothesis would predict the same result for cogates as well as for ocogates, but this is ot the case because cogate primig is foud i same-script experimets (de Groot & Nas, 1991; Sachez-Casas et al., 1992). Followig the suggestio of Sachez-Casas et al. (1992), we assume that cogates are joitly represeted i both lexicos, ad therefore primig for cogates is uaffected by the factor of script. Thus, i a same-script experimet, a search i either lexico (LI or L2) will access the lexical represetatio of a cogate. The results for the oword targets i the withi-laguage lists are highly uusual i that sigificat ihibitory effects (i either errors or RTs) were obtaied. The more ormal patter i a mooligual experimet is for there to be a slight but osigificat facilitatio effect, suggestig the possibility of a weak sublexical graphemic effect. This ihibitory effect might idicate that the effect of a idetity prime made the oword targets seem more wordlike, ad this delayed the decisio. If the effect of a idetity prime is to icrease the perceived familiarity of the target, this would obviously iduce a bias toward a "yes" decisio, as argued by Balota

10 ASKED TRANSLATION PRIING 1131 ad Chumbley (1984). However, the problem with this iterpretatio is that such a ihibitory effect ought to be observed o a regular basis, ad this is ot the case (e.g., see the results of Experimet 1). To explai why the effect is preset i Experimet 2, we might suggest that the biliguals tested i this experimet were less cofidet i rejectig owords tha would ormally be the case for more proficiet speakers ad hece teded to place more weight o perceived familiarity as a basis for decidig what to do with a oword. Such a effect would be more likely i L2 tha i LI, as is the case here for RTs but ot for errors. This explaatio is compatible with the results obtaied by Jacoby ad Whitehouse (1989), who showed that a masked idetity prime ca ifluece old-ew judgmets i a recogitio memory experimet whe there is cosiderable ucertaity about the correct decisio. Fially, i Experimet 2 as well as i Experimet 1, RTs ad errors to cogate targets showed a tred suggestig that cogate targets are more difficult to process i Eglish. Because this effect was obtaied with both Hebrewdomiat ad Eglish-domiat biliguals, this result caot be explaied as a factor of laguage domiace. It is also a somewhat uexpected result because the cogates ad ocogates were frequecy matched. It would be iterestig to see whether the same patter would replicate with mooliguals as well or whether it is a uique feature of cogate processig i Hebrew-Eglish biliguals. The result is, however, ot critical with respect to the preset ivestigatio because the magitude of the primig effects for cogates ad ocogates were the same i both E-E ad H-H for all biliguals, cofirmig that cogates are ot uique with respect to withi-laguage primig. It seems reasoable to coclude at this poit that for Hebrew-Eglish biliguals, ehaced primig for cogates is obtaied oly with less balaced biliguals ad that ocogates as well as cogates show strog traslatio primig effects. However, these coclusios hold oly for the case i which the directio of primig is from LI to L2. I the ext two experimets, the directio of primig is reversed, oce agai with Hebrew-domiat ad Eglishdomiat biliguals. If cogates are i fact joitly represeted i both lexicos (Sacez-Casas et al., 1992), me strog primig effects for cogates should also be obtaied whe primes are i L2 rather tha LI. As argued by Kirser, Lalor, ad Hird (1993), cogates have overlappig lexical represetatios ad are stored i a similar fashio to morphological relatives withi a laguage, such as keep ad kept Hece the laguage of the prime should be irrelevat. Experimet 3: From L2 to LI i Hebrew-Domiat Biliguals I Experimet 3, a secod group of Hebrew-domiat biliguals was tested with the cross-laguage list (E-H) ad the same withi-laguage lists as i the previous experimets. Thus, the primes were i L2, ad the targets were i LI. Previous ivestigatios of masked traslatio primig have show a bidirectioal ehaced primig effect for cogates (i.e., both from LI to L2 ad from L2 to LI; de Groot & Nas, 1991; Garcia-Albea et al., 1985; Sachez- Casas et al., 1992). If the cogate effects observed i Experimets 1 ad 2 could be explaied by a similar mechaism, the a similar patter of primig would be expected. ethod Forty Hebrew-Eglish biliguals were selected i the same way as i Experimet 1. The materials ad procedure were the same as i Experimet 2. Results Withi-laguage repetitio primig. The upper sectio of Table 6 shows the results whe primes ad targets were preseted i the same laguage. A sigificat repetitioprimig effect of 30 ms was obtaied i the Ll-Ll (H-H) list, F,(l, 38) = , SE = 347; F 2 (l, 52) = 72.35, SE The errors aalysis for this list was also sigificat, ^(1, 38) = 5.74, SE = 40; F 2 (l, 52) = 8.80, SE = 19. A sigificat repetitio primig effect of 57 ms was also obtaied i the L2-L2 (E-E) list, F,(l, 38) = 83.82, SE = 1,573; F 2 (l, 60) = 44.01, SE = 2,250. The errors aalysis for this list was sigificat oly by subjects, ^(1, 38) = 4.94, SE = 57, ad ot by items, F 2 (l, 60) = 3.57, SE = 63, p =.06. As i Experimets 1 ad 2, RTs to cogate targets collapsed over related ad urelated coditios were slower i Eglish, Fj(l, 38) = 54.26, SE = 2,015; F 2 (l, 60) , SE = 13,798; ad oce agai the errors aalysis showed more errors for cogate targets i Eglish, but the differece was oly sigificat i the subjects aalysis, ^(1, 38) = 8.09, SE = 53; F 2 < 1. I Table 6 ea Lexical-Decisio Times (i illisecods) ad Percet Error Rates Obtaied With Hebrew-Domiat Biliguals for Withi-Laguage ad Cross-Laguage (L2-L1) Lists i Experimet 3 Coditio Repetitio Repetitio Traslatio Cogate Ll-Ll (H-H) Target Nocogate 9& error L2-L2 (E-E) L2-L1 (E-H) Noword * Note. L2 = odomiat laguage; LI = domiat laguage; H = Hebrew; E = Eglish. "Noword targets ot primed; see text.

11 1132 GOLLAN, FORSTER, AND FROST Hebrew, there were o sigificat differeces i overall resposes to cogates relative to ocogates, F,(l, 38) = 3.39, SE = 828; F 2 < 1 i the RTs aalysis, all Fs < 1 i the errors aalysis. However, as previously, there was o sigificat differece i the amout of repetitio primig for cogates ad ocogates either i LI (H-H), F^l, 38) = 1.42, SE = 784; F 2 (l, 38) = 2.96, SE = 404, or i L2 (E-E), both F,,F 2 <1. A aalysis comparig primig effects i Hebrew (H-H) with primig effects i Eglish (E-E) showed that repetitio primig effects i E-E were sigificatly greater tha the effects obtaied i H-H, F x (l, 38) = 15.42, SE = 586; F 2 (l, 108) = 14.97, SE = 859. This result was also obtaied i Experimet 1 with the first group of Hebrewdomiat biliguals tested, ad a tred i the same directio was foud i Experimet 2. For the oword targets, the oly sigificat result was a primig effect of 2.1% i the error rates for the LI (H-H) list, F,(l, 38) = 5.66, SE = 15; F 2 (l, 62) = 6.76, SE = 20. I the LI list, the primig effect of 3 ms was ot sigificat, Fi < 1, F 2 = 1.18, SE - 924, or was the 5-ms effect for L2,F lf F 2 <l. Traslatio primig. The bottom of Table 6 shows the results i the cross-laguage list (E-H), where the prime was i L2, ad the target was i LI. Although the primig effect was small (9 ms), it was evertheless sigificat whe the data were collapsed over cogates ad ocogates, F^l, 38) = 5.43, SE = 575; F 2 (l, 52) = 4.74, SE = 697. The errors aalysis was also sigificat, Fj(l, 38) = 6.33, SE «31; F 2 (l, 52) = 4.08, SE = 34. However, there was o iteractio at all betwee cogate status ad primig, with exactly the same 9-ms effect beig observed for both types of items. Also, traslatio primig for ocogates aloe was ot sigificat, F^l, 38) = 2.89, SE = 568; F 2 (l, 26) = 1.67, SE = 560, or was traslatio primig for cogates, Fi(l, 38) = 1.98, SE = 752; F 2 (l, 26) = 3.10, SE =794. Discussio It is clear from these results that whe primig is from L2 to LI, Hebrew-domiat biliguals do ot show ehaced primig for cogates because exactly the same-sized traslatio primig effect (9 ms) was observed for both cogates ad ocogates. What is ot so clear is whether ay traslatio primig occurred at all. Although this 9-ms effect was sigificat whe the cogate ad ocogate coditios were combied, the separate aalyses were weak (i each case, oe of the F values was less tha 2). Clearly, this issue eeds to be examied further. Nevertheless, it seems clear that these Hebrew-domiat biliguals do ot show ay sig of a ehaced primig effect for cogates with L2-L1 traslatio primig, ad this is ot what was foud i earlier experimets (de Groot & Nas, 1991; Garcia-Albea et al., 1985; Sachez-Casas et al., 1992). The implicatio is that bidirectioal ehaced primig effects for cogates deped o the laguages havig similar orthographies. It seems, therefore, that the Hebrew- Eglish ehaced primig effects for cogates obtaied i Experimets 1 ad 2 must be explaied by a differet mechaism tha that postulated to explai the cogate effect obtaied with Dutch-Eglish ad Spaish-Eglish biliguals. This poit is take up i the Geeral Discussio. Fially, oce agai repetitio primig effects observed i Hebrew (H-H) were smaller tha i Eglish (E-E). This replicates the results obtaied i Experimet 1 with the first group of Hebrew-domiat biliguals. It seems possible that the reduced repetitio primig effects i Hebrew merely reflect the fact that loger RTs i L2 (i this case Eglish) provide greater opportuity for primig to emerge. However, recall that the Eglish-domiat group i Experimet 2 showed a (osigificat) tred i the same directio (less primig for Hebrew). oreover, a post hoc aalysis comparig the fastest 9 Hebrew-domiat biliguals with the slowest 9 (selected from this experimet ad Experimet 1) also suggests that the legth of RT caot predict the magitude of primig. The results of this aalysis are reported i Table 7. The primig effect for the slow group (mea RT for each participat above 640 ms) was 35 ms, whereas for the fast group (mea RT for each participat less tha 520 ms) it was 31 ms. Both effects were sigificat. For the slow group, Fi(l, 14) = 18.91, SE = 507; F 2 (l, 54) = 11.70, SE = 2,553, ad for the fast group, F^l, 14) = 12.64, SE = 14; F 2 (l, 54) = 48.45, SE = 612. However, the differece betwee these effects was ot sigificat (both F 1,F 2 <1). The fact that less repetitio primig is foud i Hebrew suggests that the mechaism of primig i Hebrew differs from that i Eglish. This differece caot be explaied as a fuctio of Laguage domiace or attributed to differeces i overall RTs. It also caot be attributed to differetial frequecy of usage (i.e., for Hebrew domiat biliguals, Eglish words should be less frequet) because masked primig effects are geerally foud to be idepedet of frequecy (Forster & Davis, 1984; Rajaram & Neely, 1992; Segui & Graiger, 1990). Oe possible reaso why there is less repetitio primig i Hebrew tha i Eglish is suggested by the fact that the differece betwee the primig effects correspods roughly i size to the differece betwee form-primig (oidetical stimuli, e.g., coverse ad coverge) ad repetitio primig i Eglish (Forster et al., 1987). This suggests the possibility that the omissio of vowels i writte Hebrew (ad the Table 7 ea Lexical-Decisio Times (i illisecods) ad Percet Error Rates i a Post Hoc Aalysis of i Hebrew (H-H) for Hebrew-Domiat Biliguals Selected From Experimet 1 ad Experimet 3 Coditio Repetitio Slow RTs ( = 8) Note. KTs = respose times. Biligual types Fast RTs ( = 8) terror

12 ASKED TRANSLATION PRIING 1133 cosequet ambiguity at the level of form) somehow elimiates the advatage of a prime that exactly matches the target over a prime that is oe letter differet from the target. I other words, there may be o exact matches i the Hebrew orthography. The fial experimet i this series completes the desig with a group of Eglish-domiat biliguals tested o the H-E list. If the ehaced primig effect for cogates is oly obtaied with LI primes, the there should be o evidece of stroger traslatio primig for cogates, despite the fact that i Experimet 2, Eglish-domiat biliguals showed a remarkably strog cogate effect. ethod Experimet 4: From L2 to LI i Eglish-Domiat Biliguals Thirty Eglish-domiat Hebrew-Eglish biliguals were selected i the same way as i Experimet 2, except that these participats were all livig i Israel at the time of data collectio. The materials ad desig were the same as i Experimet 1. Results Withi-laguage repetitio primig. The upper sectio of Table 8 shows the results whe the primes ad the targets were preseted i the same laguage. A sigificat repetitio primig effect of 47 ms was obtaied i the E-E (LI-LI) list, ^(1, 28) = , SE = 311; F 2 (l, 60) = , SE = 580. There was also a sigificat differece i the errors aalysis, F x i\, 28) = 26.95, SE = 33; F 2 (l, 60) = 21.75, SE = 43. ost otable, however, were the results Table 8 ea Lexical-Decisio Times (i illisecods) ad Percet Error Rates Obtaied With Eglish-Domiat Biliguals for Withi-Laguage ad Cross-Laguage (L2-L1) Lists i Experimet 4 Coditio Repetitio Repetitio Traslatio Cogate Target Nocogate c, fr error Ll-Ll (E-E) L2-L2 (H-H) L2-L1 (H-E) U Noword * Note. L2 = odomiat laguage; LI = domiat laguage; H = Hebrew; E = Eglish. Noword targets ot primed; see text. from the H-H (L2-L2) list i which sigificat primig was obtaied i the items aalysis, F 2 (l, 60) = 5.17, SE = 3,781, but ot i the subjects aalysis, Fj(l, 28) = 2.99, SE 4,988, p =.10. Oce agai, this uusual patter of sigificace idicates marked idividual differeces i primig. As i the experimets reported above, overall RTs to Eglish cogates were slower, Fi(l, 28) = 41.93, SE - 484; F 2 (l, 60) * 10.11, SE = 2,426, but this time the differece was ot sigificat i the errors aalysis, F { (\, 28) = 1.56, SE = 20.88; F 2 < 1. Also as previously, i Hebrew the differece betwee cogates ad ocogates i overall RT was less stable, Fj(l, 28) = 12.99, SE = 4,388; F 2 < 1, ad as i Experimet 1 with the Hebrew-domiat biliguals, there were actually fewer errors for cogates, F,(i, 28) = 16.77; F 2 (l, 60) ,SE = 493, suggestig a speed-accuracy trade-off. With respect to withi-laguage primig effects, there were o sigificat differeces betwee cogates ad ocogates i LI (E-E), both F it F 2 < 1, or i L2 (H-H), Fi(l, 28) = 3.86, SE = 1,825; F 2 (l, 60) < 1. The meas reported for this list suggest a differece betwee repetitio primig for cogates ad ocogates i coditio H-H (38 ms vs. 7 ms), but this differece was ot sigificat. oreover, i the items aalysis, the correspodig meas were 25 ms for cogates ad 24 ms for ocogates (such discrepacies betwee subject meas ad item meas ca be produced whe there are some items or subjects with exceptioally high error rates). The results for repetitio primig of oword targets showed a small but osigificat ihibitory effect (-2 ms) i LI, fjd, 28) < 1;F 2 (1,62) = 1.70, SE = 9, but for L2, there was a substatial ihibitory effect (-25 ms), which was sigificat, F,(l, 28) = 5.38, SE = 1,692; F 2 (l, 62) = 6.82, SE - 7,623. This correspods to a similar effect observed for Eglish-domiat biliguals i Experimet 2 (see Table 3). This time however, there were o sigificat differeces i the errors, F x {\ y 28) = 3.63, SE = 41, p -.07; F 2 (i, 62) = 3.01, SE = 105,/? Traslatio primig. The bottom of Table 8 shows the results for the L2-L1 cross-laguage list (H-E). There was o evidece of ay traslatio primig. The effect for cogates (4 ms) was exactly offset by a egative primig effect for the ocogates (-4 ms), leadig to a zero overall effect. There was also o ehaced primig effect for cogates, F^l, 28) = 3.34, SE = 158; F 2 (l, 60) = 2.13, SE = 723. Discussio The results of this experimet cofirm that ehaced traslatio primig effects for Hebrew-Eglish cogates do ot occur with a L2 prime ad a LI target. Further, uder these coditios, there is o primig at all for ocogates. Takig these results together with the results of Experimet 3, we must coclude that strog traslatio primig is oly obtaied with a LI prime. However, because the L2-L2 primig effect i the preset experimet was oly margially sigificat, it could be argued that this coclusio is ot justified. If biliguals caot beefit from a L2 prime i a withi-laguage situatio, there is little reaso to expect that

13 1134 GOLLAN, FORSTER, AND FROST they could beefit from a L2 prime i a cross-laguage situatio. Obviously, it would be more covicig if those biliguals who did show sigificat primig withi-l2 also did ot show ay cross-laguage facilitatio from L2 to LI. To stregthe the argumet, we carried out a post hoc aalysis, selectig oly those biliguals who would be likely to show ormal primig effects withi L2. From the biliguals icluded i Experimet 4,14 with the lowest error rates were selected for reaalysis. These biliguals had a average of 5s i the H-H list, whereas the remaiig 16 averaged 23s. I this aalysis, the repetitio primig effect of 28 ms withi L2 (H-H) was sigificat both by subjects ad by items, f,(l, 12) = 8.52, SE = 1,221; ad F 2 (l, 60) = 7.29, SE = 4,593. Nevertheless, there was still o sigificat traslatio primig i the H-E list (both Fi, F 2 < 1), the effect for cogates beig 5 ms ad for ocogates beig 12 ms. This aalysis provides a stroger test of the hypothesis that a LI prime is importat i obtaiig a Hebrew-Eglish traslatio primig effect, for despite showig ormal repetitio primig from L2 to L2, o traslatio primig was foud from L2 to LI. 3 Geeral Discussio This study was desiged to determie if ehaced masked traslatio primig for cogates could be foud across laguages with differet scripts. The cetral questio was whether orthographic overlap is required to obtai a special effect for cogates. The results provide a straightforward aswer to this questio: Ehaced cogate primig ca be obtaied i Hebrew-Eglish biliguals, despite the absece of orthographic overlap. Nevertheless, a umber of aspects of the preset set of results differ from previous same-script ivestigatios, ad this suggests that differeces i orthography have a strog ifluece o lexical access ad represetatio i biligual systems. A cosistet result that emerged throughout the study was a proouced asymmetry i cross-laguage primig. Although ehaced primig was foud for cogates, it was oly obtaied whe the primes were i LI. Further, sigificat traslatio primig effects were foud for ocogates but, agai, oly with LI primes. Whe primes were i L2 ad targets were i LI, traslatio primig effects were very weak ad icosistet. A summary of the traslatio primig effects obtaied i all four experimets is give i Table 9. The directioal asymmetry apparet i Table 9 had ot bee foud i earlier sigle-script studies i which strog cogate primig was observed for both LI ad L2 primes, ad traslatio primig effects for ocogates were either small i size (de Groot & Nas, 1991) or were ot preset at all (Sachez-Casas et al., 1992). Thus, the mai questio to be examied cocers the maer i which orthographic factors could have iflueced the patter of primig i the preset study. Several possibilities ca be proposed. First, the script itself provides a powerful access cue that uequivocally directs the reader to a specific lexico. This cue icreases the chaces of obtaiig primig by guarateeig rapid access Table 9 Summary of Traslatio Effects i Experimets 1-4 Coditio ad traslatio type L1-L2 Cogate Nocogate L2-L1 Cogate Nocogate Hebrew RT (ms) % i error Laguage domiace Eglish RT (ms) k> error Note. RT = respose time; LI = domiat laguage; L2 odomiat laguage. to the lexico that cotais the represetatio of the prime. If we assume that the lexicos for LI ad L2 are distict ad are ot accessed i parallel, the access time will obviously deped o which lexico is accessed first. Whe the prime ad the target are i the same script (e.g., Spaish-Eglish or Dutch-Eglish), there is othig to idicate i which lexico the prime is likely to be located, ad therefore the lexical processor may iitially attempt to access a Spaish prime i the Eglish lexico (or vice versa). Uder these coditios, access of traslatio primes would simply fail, or if a subsequet correctio is made, be so slow that there would be little or o chace that the prime could ifluece the processig of the target. Note that all that would be eeded to sigificatly reduce the masked primig effect would be a small delay. Hece, eve a model that posits that both lexicos are always accessed, but the processes are staggered such that the search of oe lexico begis just prior to the other, would predict a reductio i primig whe there is o orthographic cue. I cotrast, whe primes ad targets are prited i two differet scripts, the characters themselves provide a uequivocal cue as to which lexico should be accessed first. This cue permits more rapid access of the relevat lexico ad icreases the probability that the prime will be accessed quickly eough to ifluece the processig of the target. Thus, accordig to this view, strog traslatio primig should be observed for both cogates ad ocogates i a two-script experimet but ot i a sigle-script experimet. Oe obvious implicatio of this hypothesis is that strog traslatio primig effects for ocogates should be obtaied i other laguages with differet scripts, ad the available evidece is quite ecouragig for this view. Strog traslatio primig effects for ocogates have bee re- 3 A small iteractio effect emerged betwee cogate status ad primig, F x {\, 12) = 6.16, SE = 174; F 2 (l, 60) = 8.48,SE = 573. However, it is difficult to iterpret this effect because the directio of primig for ocogates was ihibitory, the directio of primig for cogates was facilitatory, ad either of these two mai effects aloe was sigificat. The effect was ot sigificat i the errors aalysis, ^(1,12) = 1.26,AfS = 45;F 2 (l,60) = 1.90, SE - 68.

14 ASKED TRANSLATION PRIING 1135 ported for Chiese-Eglish biliguals (Jiag, 1995) ad also for Thai-Eglish biliguals (Davis & Schokecht, 1996) whe two distict alphabetic scripts were used. Other evidece that the orthographic distictiveess of LI ad L2 iflueces biligual processig comes from a same-script biligual lexical-decisio task (Graiger & Beauvillai, 1987). I this task, targets from Eglish ad Frech were mixed i the same list ad were either orthographicauy legal i both laguages (e.g., ager ad metori) or oly legal i oe laguage ad ot i the other (e.g., arrow ad suivre). RTs were faster for mixed lists cotaiig the latter type of words, which are ot orthographicauy legal i both laguages. This suggests that the presece of a orthographic cue produces faster resposes, thereby demostratig that carefully maipulated orthographic factors may direct lexical search eve i laguages that share the same script. Because de Groot ad Nas (1991) ad Sachez-Casas et al. (1992) did ot maipulate orthographic legality i LI ad L2, it is possible that this factor may explai why primig for ocogates has bee icosistet i these studies. The orthographic cue hypothesis requires the assumptio that there are separate lexicos for each laguage ad that the two retrieval operatios caot be lauched simultaeously (though search of the two laguages may proceed i parallel oce the two retrieval mechaisms have bee lauched). Thus, our results caot be easily accommodated by a activatio model that assumes oe uified lexico for both laguages with parallel access to the differet words of both laguages (Graiger, 1993). I such a activatio model, the prime should activate its appropriate lexical ad sematic code i both laguages simultaeously. Because there is o (or weak) traslatio primig for ocogates i a same-script experimet, oe would be forced ito the ulikely coclusio that masked ocogate primes do ot activate ay lexical represetatios whereas masked cogate primes do. Hece the absece of, or reductio i. traslatio primig for ocogates i same-script experimets creates a problem for a sigle-lexico model. Oe might still support a sigle lexico model ad accout for the lack of traslatio primig effects by assumig that the prime i oe laguage activates may distractig competitors i both laguages (Graiger, 1993), thereby reducig the likelihood that traslatio primig might occur. Accordig to this view, the Spaish prime ube (meaig cloud) would activate all cadidates of the uified lexico that are similar i form. If Eglish is the expected laguage for the target, the the Eglish cadidates would be checked first (e.g., cube, ude, uke, lube), ad thus the Spaish etry for the prime would have less chace of beig accessed i time to facilitate the Eglish target cloud (the traslatio of ube). For the preset experimets, however, a Hebrew prime will activate oly Hebrew cadidates because of the orthographic cue it provides, thus icreasig the opportuity for traslatio primig to emerge. It should be oted that this model still ivolves a serial processig assumptio, amely that cadidates i oe laguage are checked before cadidates i aother. Thus, models that postulate a uified lexico, i which access to words i oe laguage occurs before access to words i the aother, yield similar predictios to models that postulate distict lexicos. I this case, however, it is ot truly clear what properties of the "uified" lexico make it uified i terms of psychological processes. Although the orthographic cue hypothesis ca accout for the icreased primig observed for ocogates whe the prime ad the target are i differet scripts, it caot explai why the effects should oly be obtaied with LI primes. To accout for this asymmetry, some properties of the masked primig paradigm must be cosidered. As argued above, because the prime ad the target are preseted i such rapid successio, it is reasoable to assume that the amout of primig should deped o how quickly the prime is processed relative to the target Accordig to this view, marked differeces i readig proficiecy of the two scripts will icrease the chace that L2 primes will ot be processed rapidly eough to ifluece the processig of LI targets. This is because of the close temporal proximity of primes ad targets i the masked primig paradigm. If the target is processed much more rapidly tha the prime, the prime may reach a stage where it could affect the target oly after the processig of the target has already bee completed. That is, the processig of the LI target essetially "overtakes" the processig of the L2 prime, ad hece o primig is observed. This accout emphasizes the importace of relative speed i processig the differet scripts ad ot the overall performace i processig words i L2. Note that robust primig was obtaied from L2 to L2 i both Eglish ad Hebrew, suggestig that the L2 primes were ideed processed. The primig effects i this coditio occurred because the L2 targets were also processed at the same slow rate as the primes, thereby givig the L2 primes sufficiet time to complete the access process before processig of the L2 target was completed. The argumet for the importace of the relative speed of processig makes the assumptio that whe short SOAs are used, processig of the prime is still uderway whe processig of the target begis. Oe iterestig predictio that follows is that primig from L2 to LI should begi to emerge if the differece i processig speeds betwee LI ad L2 is reduced (ad the maskig procedure is ot iterrupted). Oe way to test this predictio is to compare traslatio primig effects for more ad less balaced biliguals who differ i their relative speed of processig LI ad L2 words. Tables 6 ad 8 reveal that the Hebrewdomiat biliguals i Experimet 3 were more balaced biliguals tha the Eglish-domiat biliguals i Experimet 4. This ca be see i the more discrepat performace of the Eglish-domiats with Eglish relative to Hebrew words. As the hypothesis would predict, sigificat primig was obtaied for Hebrew-domiat biliguals with L2 primes, whereas the respective effect for Eglish-domiat biliguals i Experimet 4 was virtually zero. It should also be oted that the results of Keatley et al. (1994), i which cross-laguage primig was greater from LI to L2 eve for biliguals with very similar RTs i LI ad L2, do ot cotradict the predictios of the relative-speed-of-processig argumet for two reasos. First, two of three experi-

15 1136 GOLLAN, FORSTER, AND FROST mets i that study ivestigated cross-laguage primig for sematic associates rather ma traslatio primig. Of more importace, the primes i that study were preseted for much loger (200 to 250 ms) ad were ot masked (participats were i fact able to report the primes). Clearly, the results of omasked studies are iflueced by differet factors. For example, the relative weakess of L2 i accessig sematic memory probably played a much larger role uder those primig coditios. A alterative explaatio of the asymmetrical primig from LI to L2 focuses o the relative stregth of the coectios betwee lexical represetatios ad coceptual memory. O this accout the coectios betwee lexical represetatios i L2 ad coceptual memory are weak ad impoverished, whereas LI represetatios activate coceptual memory strogly. Thus, while a LI prime activates all the sematic represetatios eeded to iterpret a L2 word, a L2 prime activates oly some of the sematic represetatios eeded to iterpret the LI traslatio. Hece traslatio primig is asymmetrical, ad i fact, this accout predicts that primig from L2 to LI should always be weaker tha the reverse. This argumet has bee used to explai other cross-laguage primig experimets i which primig from LI to L2 was greater tha primig from L2 to LI (e.g., Keatley et al., 1994). Other biligual data have also motivated the assumptio that L2 activates coceptual memory weakly relative to LI. For example, Kroll ad Stewart (1990, 1994) demostrated that traslatio from LI to L2 was iflueced by sematic maipulatios, whereas traslatio from L2 to LI was ot. Kroll ad Stewart argued that traslatio from LI to L2 is coceptually mediated, whereas traslatio from L2 to LI is mediated by strog lexical liks from L2 to LI (which presumably are established as a L2 is acquired ad traslatios are associated with each other). The mai difficulty with this explaatio is that strog lexical liks from L2 to L1 predict strog primig from L2 to LI, whe i fact the opposite was obtaied. However, if the argumet for relative speed of processig is accepted, the this model is evertheless cosistet with our results because uder this accout the L2 to LI liks may ever have a chace to affect recogitio of the LI target. A more geeral difficulty with sematic accouts of asymmetrical masked traslatio primig is that may studies that have used the same masked primig paradigm obtaied very small or osigificat primig effects whe sematically related primes were used (e.g., Brow & Hagoort, 1993; Colwell, 1992; de Groot & Nas, 1991; Perea, Gotor, Rosa, & Algarebel, 1995; vo Baggo, 1990). These results cotrast sharply with the strog traslatio primig effects observed i the preset study that are virtually equivalet to withi-laguage repetitio primig effects. Of particular relevace here is a fidig reported by Frost, Forster, ad Deutsch (1997). These authors ivestigated whether masked morphological primig effects i Hebrew could be explaied o the basis of sematic overlap ad foud o facilitatio at all (-3 ms) for sematically related pairs that did ot share a root morpheme. It should be oted that we are ot claimig that sematic factors are ieffective i masked primig experimets. Rather, the claim is simply that the size of the sematic effect obtaied withi-laguage is ot large eough to accout for the traslatio effects obtaied i our study. Obviously, traslatio-equivalet terms have far greater sematic overlap tha sematically or associatively related items withi a laguage because traslatio equivalets are, i effect, syoyms. Nevertheless, it seems doubtful whether this additioal sematic similarity could explai why strog effects are foud for traslatios, whereas o primig whatsoever is obtaied withi laguage for very closely related pairs (e.g., musicia-orchestra; see Frost et al., 1997). If it is cosidered ulikely that purely sematic factors could accout for the preset results, the the oly obvious alterative accout is oe that focuses o Lexical-level liks aloe. Accordig to this view, primig occurs because of lexical liks betwee traslatios, ad the magitude of primig for cogates relative to ocogates reflects the stregth of these coectios. Oe possible model of ehaced primig for cogates i these terms would suggest that cogates i the two laguages are strogly coected, whereas coectios betwee ocogates are sigificatly weaker. The advatage of describig traslatio primig effects for ocogates i terms of lexical coectios is that this descriptio focuses o form ad does ot rely o sematic overlap as the basis of primig. Thus, it ca easily accout for the strog traslatio primig effects betwee Laguages, without cotradictig the weak sematic effects obtaied withi laguage. Further, a lexical-coectio iterpretatio is compatible with the fidig that oly cogates produce cross-laguage primig for sematic associates (de Groot & Nas, 1991). If such primig occurs at the lexical level (Lupker, 1984; Shelto & arti, 1992) rather tha at the coceptual level, the traslatios with strog lexical coectios (i.e., cogates) should produce sematic primig, whereas traslatios that have weaker lexical coectios (i.e., ocogates) should ot. Postulatig that lexical coectios are the basis of primig does ot, however, explai the asymmetrical ature of cogate primig. A major fidig i this study is that ehaced primig for cogates was foud oly with LI primes, whereas there was o differece i the magitude of primig from L2 to LI for cogates ad ocogates (whe such primig was obtaied, i.e., i Experimet 3). This patter cotrasts sharply with same-script studies that reported greater primig for cogates relative to ocogates, both with LI ad L2 primes (de Groot & Nas, 1991; Sachez-Casas et al., 1992). To explai symmetrical ehaced primig for cogates, two types of models have bee proposed. Oe model postulates shared represetatios at the lexical level (Sachez-Casas et al., 1992). Accordig to this view, the lexico of a Spaish-Eglish reader, for example, would cotai a joit lexical represetatio for both rich ad rico, which ca be accessed equally well by either stimulus. It is easy to explai bidirectioal ehaced primig effects for cogates i this model, eve i the absece of a orthographic cue. Because of their shared lexical represetatios, each time a cogate occurs i either laguage the ability to recogize it i the other laguage is

16 ASKED TRANSLATION PRIING 1137 reiforced as well. Hece, the ability to access a cogate term i L2 is reiforced by practice i LI, ad primig from L2 to LI is as stable as primig from LI to L2. This model iterprets ehaced primig for cogates as a access advatage that takes place i early levels of processig; cogates have a special status such that access gradually becomes equally efficiet i LI ad L2. Further, i this model the same-script cogate advatage should be clearest i balaced biliguals because presumably it would take some time before the LI cogate represetatio could accommodate a ew, though perhaps oly slightly altered, access code. A secod model of ehaced primig for cogates assumes that both cogates ad ocogates are liked at the lexical level to the same extet ad that the cogate advatage is explaied by ehaced overlap at the coceptual level; cogates share a sigle coceptual represetatio, whereas ocogates are distict at the coceptual level (de Groot & Nas, 1991). This model was proposed to accout for the stroger primig for cogates, ad aother fidig (from the same study) that masked cross-laguage primig for sematic associates is obtaied for cogates but ot for ocogates. The claim i this model is that biliguals fid it more difficult to acquire sematic distictios betwee phoologic ally ad orthographically similar forms because the form similarity of the cogates prevets biliguals from distiguishig them at a sematic level. Thus, this model assumes that form ad meaig are ot idepedet ad that the ehaced primig for cogates occurs at a deeper (i.e., sematic rather tha lexical) level of processig. Although these models are quite differet i their assumptios about lexical structure ad primig mechaisms, they both make the assumptio that cogates share a sigle represetatio at some level. This proposal is supported by other biligual studies showig that L2 cogates are accessed with greater facility tha L2 ocogates (e.g., Caramazza & Broes, 1979); by studies demostratig that cogates show traslatio primig whe may items are preseted betwee the prime ad target, whereas ocogates do ot show primig uder such coditios (e.g., Cristoffaii et al., 1986); ad by studies showig similar traslatio performace from L1 to L2 ad from L2 to L1 for cogates ad asymmetrical traslatio performace for ocogates (de Groot, Daeburg, & va Hell, 1994; Sachez-Casas et al., 1992; but see Kroll & Stewart, 1994, for a exceptio). The results reported i the preset study, however, do ot correspod to these fidigs. First, ulike the same-script masked primig studies, we foud ehaced primig for cogates oly with LI primes (i.e., a asymmetric effect). Whe primig was obtaied from L2 to LI (Experimet 3), there was absolutely o hit of ehaced primig for cogates. Further, although the differeces betwee cogates ad ocogates i terms of overall RTs were ot always sigificat, the tred was always i the directio of slower access to cogates relative to ocogates. Fially, the oly experimet that produced clear ehaced primig for cogates i the preset study (Experimet 2), produced uusually large facilitatio of 142 ms for cogates. I fact, traslatio primig i this experimet was larger tha repetitio primig withi-laguage. If the same represetatio produces withi-laguage ad cross-laguage primig for cogate terms, the the effects should be roughly of the same magitude, ad the uusual size of the effect raises the possibility that differet mechaisms are ivolved i traslatio primig for Hebrew-Eglish cogates. All of these fidigs lead us to suggest that Hebrew-Eglish cogates do ot share the same lexical represetatio, probably because of the differece i script. Thus, we propose that the establishmet of shared lexical represetatios requires simultaeous overlap i orthography, phoology, ad meaig. This proposal assumes that Hebrew-Eglish cogates do ot have a special status relative to ocogates ad predicts that primig effects for cogates ad ocogates should be idetical. Thus, it clarifies why ehaced primig for cogates was ot obtaied from L2 to LI, but it caot explai why it was obtaied from LI to L2. Oe possible explaatio focuses o the shared phoological (as opposed to orthographic) properties of cogates i laguages havig two differet scripts ad is suggested by the post hoc aalysis reported i Experimet 2. This aalysis revealed that less balaced biliguals (as measured by error rates rather tha by RTs) showed a more proouced ehaced primig effect for cogates (see Table 5). Similarly, the biliguals i Experimet 2 (who were less balaced tha those i Experimet 1; see Table 4) showed a robust ehaced primig effect for cogates, with a uusually large mai effect of primig for cogates. These results suggest that ehaced primig for cogates was characteristic of the processig of less proficiet biliguals. Thus, o this view proficiet biliguals i differet-script laguages would ot at all display a ehaced primig effect for cogates. The ehaced cogate effect for less proficiet biliguals could be related to a possible greater reliace of these readers o phoological assembly i processig the L2 targets (e.g., Baro & Baro, 1977). If less proficiet biliguals ideed rely more heavily o phoological computatio of L2 words, a ehaced cogate effect would emerge because the phoological similarity of the prime ad target would become relevat. What could be primed is the actual procedure of phoological computatio for the L2 target. Because rapid access of a LI cogate prime geerates a phoological code that is similar to that of the L2 target, the recovery of the phoological structure of the L2 target would occur more rapidly for a cogate tha it would for a ocogate. Note that aalogous argumets have bee used to iterpret articulatory primig effects with masked primes i a amig task (Forster & Davis, 1991). Assumig that access of LI targets does ot rely o phoological recodig to the same extet, this proposal would also explai why the effect is ot bidirectioal. Thus, ehaced cogate effects i two differet scripts are expected to emerge because of a feature of lexical processig i L2 that is either ot preset, or much less preset, i LI; that is, a heavy reliace o a phoological code. This hypothesis, however, deserves further ivestigatio. I coclusio, the results of this ivestigatio suggest that

17 1138 GOLLAN, FORSTER, AND FROST orthographic properties play a critical role i cross-laguage masked primig. Differeces i script may operate as a powerful cue that directs lexical search. This cue allows rapid access to the masked cross-laguage prime ad hece also allows stable ocogate primig to emerge. The differeces i script also have implicatios to the represetatio of cogates. Our results suggest that Hebrew-Eglish cogates are ot accessed i the same way as cogates i laguages that share the same script Ehaced cogate primig i laguages havig differet scripts seems to be mediated by the shared phoological structure ad emerges oly whe greater reliace o a phoological code is eeded. At a more geeral level, the results of this study provide evidece for the automaticity of visual word recogitio. Hebrew ad Eglish are read i opposite directios; Eglish words are read from left to right, whereas Hebrew words are read from right to left Thus, the mere fact that primig is obtaied without awareess across two such distict orthographies is remarkable. It suggests either that directio i readig oly matters i coected text, or that the directio of readig is cotrolled purely by the ature of the script itself, ad that this directio (first letter to last letter) is automatically lauched, without awareess ad eve i a cotext that ivolves cosciously readig i the opposite directio. Refereces Altarriba, J. (1992). The represetatio of traslatio equivalets i biligual memory. I R. J. Harris (Ed.), Cogitive processig i biliguals (pp ). New York: Elsevier Sciece. Balota, D. A. & Chumbley, J. I. (1984). Are lexical decisios a good measure of lexical access? The role of word frequecy i the eglected decisio stage. Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Huma Perceptio ad Performace, 10, Baro, R. W., & Baro, J. (1977). How childre get meaig from prited words. Child Developmet, 48, Brow, C, & Hagoort, P. (1993). The processig ature of the N400: Evidece from masked primig. Joural of Cogitive Neurosciece, 5, Caramazza, A., & Broes, I. (1979). Lexical access i biliguals. Bulleti of the Psychoomic Society, 13, Che, H. C, & Ng,. L. (1989). Sematic facilitatio ad traslatio primig effects i Chiese-Eglish biliguals. emory & Cogitio, 17, Coltheart, V., Patterso, K., & Leahy, J. (1994). Whe a ROWS is a ROWS: Phoological effects i writte word comprehesio. Quarterly Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Huma Experimetal Psychology, 47(A), Colwell, L. A. (1992). Strategic effects o masked associative primig. Upublished bachelor's thesis, oash Uiversity, elboure, Australia. Cristoffaii, P., Kirser, K., & ilech, D. (1986). Biligual lexical represetatio: The status of Spaish-Eglish cogates. Quarterly Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Huma Experimetal Psychology, 38(A), Davis, C, & Schokecht, C. (1996). Lexical processig i Thai- Eglish biliguals. Pa-Asiatic Liguistics: Proceedigs of the Fourth Iteratioal Symposium o Laguage ad Liguistics (pp ). Thailad: aidol Uiversity. de Groot, A.. B. (1992). Determiats of word traslatio. Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Learig, emory, ad Cogitio, 18, de Groot, A.. B. (1993). Word-type effects i biligual processig tasks: Support for a mixed-represetatioal system. I R. Schreuder & B, Weltes (Eds.), The biligual lexico (pp ). Amsterdam: Bejamis. de Groot, A.. B., Daeburg, L., & va Hell, J. G. (1994). Forward ad backward word traslatio by biliguals. Joural of emory ad Laguage, 33, de Groot, A.. B., & Nas, G. L. J., (1991). Lexical represetatio of cogates ad ocogates i compoud biliguals. Joural of emory ad Laguage, 30, Forster, K. I. (1985). Lexical acquisito ad the modular lexico. Laguage ad Cogitive Processes, 1, Forster, K. I., & Davis, C. (1984). Repetitio primig ad frequecy atteuatio i lexical access. Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Learig, emory, ad Cogitio, 10, Forster, K. I., & Davis, C. (1991). The desity costrait o form-primig i the amig task: Iterferece effects from a masked prime. Joural of emory ad Laguage, 30, Forster, K. I., Davis, C, Schokecht, C, & Carter, R. (1987). asked primig with graphemically related forms: Repetitio or activatio7 Quarterly Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Huma Experimetal Psychology, 39(A), Frost, R., & Be ti, S. (1992). Readig cosoats ad guessig vowels: Visual word recogitio i Hebrew orthography. I R. Frost & L. Katz (Eds.), Orthography, phoology, morphology, ad meaig (pp ) Amsterdam: Elsevier. Frost, R., Forster, K. I., & Deutsch, A. (1997). What ca we lear from the morphology of Hebrew? A masked primig ivestigatio of morphological represetatio. Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Learig, emory, ad Cogitio, 23, Garda-Albea, J. E., Sachez-Casas, R.., Bradley, 0. C, & Forster, K. I. (1985, November). Cross-laguage primig effects i biligual word recogitio. Paper preseted at the meetig of the Fifth Australia Laguage Coferece, elboure, Australia. Graiger, J. (1993). Visual word recogitio i biliguals. I R. Schreuder & B. Weltes (Eds.), The biligual lexico (pp ). Amsterdam: Bejamis. Graiger, J., & Beauvillai, C. (1987). Laguage blockig ad lexical access i biliguals. Quarterly Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Huma Experimetal Psychology, J9(A), Graiger, J., & Beauvillai, C. (1988). Associative primig i biliguals: Some limits of iterligual facilitatio effects. Caadia Joural of Psychology, 42, Graiger, J., Cole, P., & Segui, J. (1991). asked morphological primig i visual word recogitio. Joural of emory ad Laguage, 30, Grosjea, F., & iller, J. (1994). Goig i ad out of laguages: A example of biligual flexibility. Psychological Sciece, 5, Jacoby, L. L., & Whitehouse, K. (1989). A illusio of memory: False recogitio iflueced by ucoscious perceptio. Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Geeral, 118, , Jiag, N. (1995, December). Asymmetric cross-laguage primig i Chiese-Eglish biliguals. Poster sessio preseted at the Seveth Iteratioal Coferece o Cogitive Processig of Chiese ad Other Asia Laguages, Hog Kog, Chia. Ji, Y-S. (1990). Effects of cocreteess o cross-laguage primig i lexical decisios. Perceptual ad otor Skills, 70, Keatley, C. W., Spiks, J. A., & de Gelder, B. (1994). Asymmetrical cross-laguage primig effects. emory &. Cogitio, 22,70-84.

18 ASKED TRANSLATION PRIING 1139 Kirser, K., Brow, H., Abrol, S., Chadha, N. K., & Sharma, N. K. (1980). Biligualism ad lexical represetatio. Quarterly Joural of Experimetal Psychology, 32, Kirser, K., Laior,., & Hiid, K. (1993). Exercise, meaig ad morphology. I R. Schreuder & B. Weltes (Eds.), The biligual lexico (pp ). Amsterdam: Bejamis. Kirser, K., Smith,. C, Lockhart, R. S., Kig,. L., & Jai,. (1984). The biligual lexico: Laguage-specific uits i a itegrated etwork. Joural of Verbal Learig ad Verbal Behavior, 23, Kroll, J. F. (1993). Accessig coceptual represetatios for words i a secod laguage. I R. Schreuder & B. Weltes (Eds.), The biligual lexico (pp ). Amsterdam: Bejamis. Kroll, J. E, & Stewart, E. (1990, November). Cocept mediatio i biligual traslatio. Paper preseted at the aual meetig of the Psychoomic Society, New Orleas, LA. Kroll, J. E, & Stewart, E. (1994). Category iterferece i traslatio ad picture amig: Evidece for asymmetric coectios betwee biligual memory represetatios. Joural of emory ad Laguage, 33, Kufiera, H., & Fracis, W. N. (1967). Computatioal aalysis of preset-day America Eglish. Providece, RI: Brow Uiversity Press. Lukatela, G., Carello, C, & Tfcrvey,. T. (1990). Phoemic primig by words ad pseudowords. Europea Joural of Cogitive Psychology, 2, Lukatela, G., & Turvey,. T (1990a). Automatic ad prelexical computatio of phoology i visual word idetificatio. Europea Joural of Cogitive Psychology, 2, , Lukatela, G., & turvey,. T. (1990b). Phoemic similarity effects ad prelexical phoology. emory & Cogitio, 18, Lupker, S. J. (1984). Sematic primig without associatio: A secod look. Joural of Verbal Learig ad Verbal Behavior, 23 r acleod, C.. (1976). Biligual episodic memory: Acquisitio ad forgettig. Joural of Verbal Learig ad Verbal Behavior, 15, Perea,., Gotor, A., Rosa, E., & Algarebel, S. (1995, November). Time course of sematic activatio for differet prime-target relatioships i the lexical decisio task. Poster sessio preseted at the 36th Aual eetig of the Psychoomic Society, Los Ageles, CA. Pollatsek, A., & Well, A. D. (1995). O the use of couterbalaced desigs i cogitive research: A suggestio for a better ad more powerful aalysis. Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Learig, emory, ad Cogitio, 21, Rajaram, S., & Neely, J. H. (1992). Dissociative masked repetitio primig ad word frequecy effects i lexical decisio ad episodic recogitio tasks. Joural of emory & Laguage, 31, Sachez-Casas, R.., Davis, C. W., & Garcia-Albea, J. E. (1992). Biligual lexical processig: Explorig the cogate/ocogate distictio. Europea Joural of Cogitive Psychology, 4, Scarborough, D. L., Gerard, L., & Cortese, C. (1984). Idepedece of lexical access i biligual word recogitio. Joural of Verbal Learig ad Verbal Behavior, 23, Schwaeflugel, P. J., & Rey,. (1986). Iterligual sematic facilitatio: Evidece for a commo represetatioal system i the biligual lexico. Joural of emory ad Laguage, 25, 605-^18. Segui, J., & Graiger, J. (1990). word recogitio with orthographic eighbors: Effects of relative prime-target frequecy. Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Huma Perceptio ad Performace, 16, Shelto, J. R., & arti, R. C. (1992). How sematic is automatic sematic primig? Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Learig, emory, ad Cogitio, 18, Smith,. C. (1991). O the recruitmet of sematic iformatio for word fragmet completio: Evidece from biligual primig. Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Learig, emory, ad Cogitio, 17, Tzelgov, J., Heik, A., & Leiser, D. (1990). lig Stroop iterferece: Evidece from a biligual task. Joural of Experimetal Psychology: Learig, emory, ad Cogitio, 16, vo Baggo, K. (1990). ad lexical access: A examiatio offodor's modularity hypothesis. Upublished bachelor's thesis, oash Uiversity, elboure, Australia. Received December 13,1995 Revisio received Jue 24,1996 Accepted Jauary 22,1997

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