SOME IMPORTANT ASPECTS IN THE GRAMMAR TEACHING PROCESS

Transcription

1 Emanuelli Fernanda Torres SOME IMPORTANT ASPECTS IN THE GRAMMAR TEACHING PROCESS Monografia apresentada para obtenyao do titulo de especialista no curso de Especializa~o em Lingua In9lesa, Setor PROPPE Pr6 Reitoria de P6s Graduac;ao, Pesquisa e extensao da Universidade Tuiuti do Parana, sob a orientay80 da Professora Mestre Marrigje Kool Verburg \ CURITIBA 2005

2 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ENGLISH GRAMMAR WHAT IS GRAMMAR AND WHY IT IS IMPORTANT GRAMMAR DIMENSIONS GRAMMAR AND RULES GRAMMAR AND KNOWLEDGE GRAMMAR AND THE TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS APPROACHES TO GRAMMAR GRAMMAR PRODUCT AND PROCESS Product Approaches Process Approaches GRAMMAR AS A SKILL DECLARATIVE AND PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE TEACHING Initial Presentation of Declarative knowledge Maintaining Declarative knowledge Proceduralising Declarative knowledge TEACHING INTERACTION AND PROCESS... 3 GRAMMAR TEACHING HOW TO EXPLAIN GRAMMAR CONSCIOUSNESS AND AWARENESS RAISING APPROACHES GRAMMAR TEACHING IMPLICATIONS GOOD REASONS FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR

3 4 GRAMMAR IN THE SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION PROCESS THEORY OF UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR IN RELATION TO SLA Learnability Access to Universal Grammar GRAMMAR IN VARIOUS METHODS AND APPROACHES THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION APPROACH THE DIRECT METHOD THE COGNITIVE APPROACH THE NATURAL APPROACH THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH THE TASK - BASED LEARNING OF GRAMMAR... 6 CHALLENGING GRAMMAR MYTHS 'Grammar is acquired naturally, it does not need to be taught' 'Grammar is a collection of meaningless forms' 'Grammar is boring' 'Students have different styles' 'Grammar structures are learned one at a time' 'Grammar and vocabulary are areas of knowledge' 'I do not know enough to teach grammar' CONCLUSION 35 REFERENCES....36

4 INTRODUCTION The aim of this paper is to show how important grammar is in the learning process and how teachers can deal with it in class. There are many reasons for learning grammar and it needs to be taught. Some teachers have to improve the ability of teaching grammar because they just have fluency in the English language and they do not know how to apply grammar correctly and they tackle it superficially in their classrooms. This paper points out some grammar teaching techniques. But why is grammar important? Supposing language is a game and grammar corresponds to the rules of the game, if we do not know the rules, we will not be able to play the game nor play it well. Certainly the great challenge faced by second language teachers is to make learners not only get to know the rules but also apply them.

5 1 ENGLISH GRAMMAR Many English courses consider grammar a necessary part of English language development, but some courses do not prepare teachers to teach grammar adequately. There are some important aspects that are necessary in teaching grammar. First, students have to know what is grammar and why they have to learn grammar before starting to learn form and meaning. Then the use which is the most important aspect because students have to know how and when grammar is appropriately used, in what contexts, by whom and in which situations. Then these courses have to analyse how teachers are dealing with grammar and facilitate the teaching-learning process by choosing the appropriate method. 1.1 WHAT IS GRAMMAR AND WHY IT IS IMPORTANT "... it is an integral part of the language we use in everyday communication,n (BATSTONE,1994,p.3.) ",..it is one of the most common bits of terminology which learners and teachers use in talking about language." (BOWEN, 1994,p.76.) Language without grammar would be chaotic, as there would be countless words without the indispensable guidelines for how they can be ordered and modified. A study of grammar reveals structure and regularity, which enables us to talk about the language system. Due to the fact that we are not conscious of grammar in our own language, as language teachers we can fail, because the most important aspect is that students have to understand the reason why they are learning it. Grammar is a major influence in syllabus design, the focal point of classroom exercises and the answer to the familiar student question: 'Please, what is the rule here?'

6 1.2 GRAMMAR DIMENSIONS Grammatical competence is necessary for communication but not sufficient for production and reception in a language. There are three important dimensions for grammar: the form or the structure of the language, but these forms are meaningless without a second dimension that is meaning or semantics and the third dimension that is pragmatics Of use. The form or structure tells us how to construct a sentence. Semantics or meaning tells us something about the meaning and series of words. Pragmatics or use tells us about which of several meanings to assign given the context of a sentence. Taken together, the three dimensions provide the essential ingredients of the language learning process and no one can tell that grammar is irrelevant in the learning process because there is no doubt about the influence of grammar as an organizational framework, which operates in communication. 1.3 GRAMMAR AND RULES rules. explain rules. If you ask teachers what is grammar, the answer will be that grammar is Firstly, many teachers believe that there must be only one right way to ~Iftwo grammarians describe some language features differently, one of them has strayed from the truth and got it wrong. Thus teachers ask questions like:' This book says that in the phrase to the lighthouse, lighthouse is the object of the preposition, but another book says it a complement. Which is right?' They find it difficult to see that more than one analysis is often possible - and that anyway, in this case the label complement could embrace the object." (BYGATE, 1994,p.31) Secondly, many teachers do not question the rules. Fortunately nowadays there is authenticity in language teaching because some teachers use examples of

7 real English and refuse to accept misleading grammatical statements, but these teachers are a minority. A third consequence is that teachers do not expect grammatical rules to make sense. They know that tenses cany meaning, but even here a general feeling that the system is arbitrary is reinforced by the prevalence of superficial or misconceived rules. Fortunately, there are signs that some of the more functional and meaning based descriptions of grammar are developed and getting through into the classroom. But there is still a long way to go because new grammar books have forgotten the importance of grammar and try to call the learners attention just to the layout of the coursebook. A further problem with rules is that it may confuse language teaching. Teachers do not need to think about where they come from, what they are for? They have to understand and simplify them then to facilitate the teaching and learning process. 1A GRAMMAR AND KNOWLEDGE Knowledge of the formal grammatical system is not enough to provide communication. It is necessary to have knowledge of the world that can make sense in the language system. "To understand 'Got a light?' we need to know roughly what a Cigarette is, that some people smoke them, that Cigarettes need to be lit, and that it is not unheard of for strangers to request a light in a public place."(batstone, 1994, p.26.) To put language to use it is necessary to have two kinds of knowledge known respectively as schematic knowledge (knowledge of the world) and systemic knowledge (knowledge of the language system), in order to understand the way in which both work together. Language does not make sense as a self-contained system; rather we make sense of language by utilizing our world knowledge. Indeed, if we could not take a

8 fair amount of schematic knowledge for granted, we would find ourselves in the clumsy position of having to spell out a great deal which we conventionally take for granted. In short, as English teachers we do not have to teach grammar just as set of rules. We have to make links between grammar and real life situations. The key here is that students have to understand that they are learning grammar for communicating in real life situations and if the teacher does not inform this, the learner will not understand grammar as knowledge of the world, but as a set of rules.

9 2 GRAMMAR AND THE TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS Grammar is seen as peripheral to the true concerns of language when used for communicative purposes. It is an algebraic system in that it is an abstract system with certain logic and with certain rules and restrictions, and we can substitute a large number of different items into its structures and equations in order to generate certain values. Some teachers are asked what role grammar plays in language learning and their replies are: ~Grammar plays a significant role in language since every single change in any grammatical structure causes a change in meaning so if there were no clear grammatical rules, the language would not play its role as far as communicating ideas is concerned." wgrammar organizes language structures and makes a language understandable for a learner." "Grammar is the most important thing in learning a foreign language. If you do not know grammar you would not be able to speak or to write in that language."(bowen,1994,p.76) For these teachers, grammar is clearly a very important component of language learning. It reflects a belief that grammar is important not as something separate from communication, but precisely because it enables or facilitates communication. 2.1 APPROACHES TO GRAMMAR There are three important grammar approaches. The first is the most widespread approach to teach grammar as a product. This approach takes a product perspective on grammar, with teaching structured round a careful specification of language forms which provide the target language for each lesson. Product teaching is divided in two stages. The first is noticing new language input, that is, to make specified forms as noticeable as possible by carefully drawing the learners' attention to them. The second is to help learners to structure

10 their knowledge of the language system. Teachers give opportunities to students to manipulate forms, changing and recombining them to discover more about how grammar works. After assessed product teaching comes the process teaching that engages learners in formulating their own meaning in contexts over which they have considerable control and then drawing grammar as a future resource. The last approach is teaching grammar as a skill that helps learners make the leap from the control of grammar as product to the effective use of grammar as process. In this approach the learner is required to attend to grammar while working on tasks which retain an emphasis on language use. Teaching grammar as skill is a balance between product teaching (because there is still an emphasis on grammatical forms), and process (because learners works with self-expression and focus on meaning). Taken together, these approaches provide a comprehensive basis for effective grammar teaching. Each approach has its own advantages and disadvantages. Product teaching is focused on specified forms. Process approach shapes the learners' handling of the whole complex of skills required for language use and teaching grammar as skill can guide learner activity and learner language without releasing control to the extent that is necessary for process work. ~..::;Jil0::~\ (!BIGl ~,' ~\:j:'.' 2.2 GRAMMAR PRODUCT AND PROCESS \"'''''''.1,~" There is a distinction between grammar as a product and grammar as a process. Grammar as a product is probably the most familiar to the teachers. When we consult a grammar book we are curious about how the material will be I. / organized. The grammar book will have divided the language in some way. Of course, grammarians will structure their material differently depending on their particular way of seeing things. They still have in common a perspective on grammar, which is static. The language system is divided into separate forms. Each form is the product of the grammarian's analysis, and this product perspective on grammar can be great for teachers and learners. By focusing on

11 particular grammatical forms and their associated meanings, we can help students to develop their knowledge of the grammatical system. "On the other side, grammar is also a key element in the process of language use. Grammar as a process is concerned in myriad ways in which it is deployed from moment to moment in communication. Some understanding of grammar as process will be invaluable if we want to help students to employ grammar effectively. We cannot simply assume that because a student has studied and practiced the present perfect, he/she will be able to use it in real time communication." (BYGATE,1994,p.5) Both process and product perspectives are influential in the language teaching learning process. The distinction is between the careful control of language for the learner (as product) and the creative use of language by the learner (as process). Effective grammar teaching presupposes a clear view on how this teaching can advance the learning process. teaching. There are some process and product approaches to be considered when Product Approaches - Noticing Intake and Structuring Learners have to notice features of grammar before they can do anything with them, so noticing precedes structuring. A noticing activity aims to make a certain form salient to the leamer, and is intended to do more than that So if our aim is to help learners to notice, then we should consider doing just that without always prodding the learner into a flurry of activity by also asking her/him to manipulate the language in some way. An enforced activity is sometimes adopted in presentation stage materials, but it runs the risk that learners will be overwhelmed by the demands made on them, but noticing activities encourage a more introspective engagement with

12 language, calling for quiet observation which is unhampered by the simultaneous need to manipulate language. But noticing grammar is not enough as a necessary condition for learning. Once having noticed something about grammar, learners have to build hypotheses about how grammar is structured through the processes of structuring and restructuring. Structuring means understanding and implementing little by little the production of grammar forms. The learners formulate successive hypotheses and change them, that is he/she restructures her/his vision of how language works, and these changes are referred to as restructuring. - Learning Mechanisms: Memory and Analysis Effective learning requires the activation of two key mechanisms: memory and analysis. Memory is central, for example, in the early lexical phase of learning where chunks of language are initially perceived by the learner as wholes without awareness of their internal structure. This equates with the notion of accumulation. But if this is the only mechanism activated by a product approach then teaching and learning will be severely handicapped. The capacity to analyse language can be combined creatively in the generation of new utterances. This capacity is a prerequisite to continued restructuring. But a product approach is oriented to memory accumulation, which unfairly minimizes the role played by methodology. It is up to teachers and materials designers to decide how the various syllabus items will be exploited in actual activities, and textbook writers have constructed activities for many years which key in both learning mechanisms. Some activities will encourage the accumulation of memorized wholes when the learner rehearses fixed target expressions. Others will facilitate encounters with language of a more analytic way, requiring manipulation of language forms. Somehow a product approach can facilitate the grammar learning process by providing a clear framework with by two key elements: noticing and structuring.

13 2.2.2 Process Approaches - Focus on meaning and proceduralization The problem in grammar as a product is that learners may not retain what they have learned for very long. Therefore they will need considerable practice in language use, involving focus on meaning and on self-expression. Language use helps learners to reorganise their knowledge of language, storing it mentally. When a language is reorganized, becomes proceduralized. Consequently proceduralization constitutes the third stage in the language learning process, which operates in this sequence: notice, structure and proceduralize. Process teaching aims to encourage learners to use the language focusing on meaning, without paying attention to the grammar. The most important objective is to develop this skill in process teaching and teachers are influenced to use tasks which engage learners in meaning focused activities. But learners will need to make sense of language (receplively) and to make sense of language (productively) under the pressure of everyday communication. - Manipulation, regulation and abdication In grammar as a product there is manipulation of target language that provides a framework for the learner to facilitate the grammar noticing and structuring, but it excludes the dynamism and unpredictability of actual language use. In grammar as a process the lea mer rejects this manipulation in favor of focus on meaning and self-expression. But focus on process may be handled with some care because it is possible to lose control, leading ultimately to the proceduralisation of language, which is grammatically poor. So focus on process activity constitutes a surrender of control to the point of abdicalion because the learners responses are not properly anticipated. 10

14 On the one hand there is excessive manipulation of learner language, and on the other there is an effective abdication of principled control. The ideal is a balance between the two extremes. A conception of grammar teaching which provides a measure of regulation over learner activity, but which does not eliminate the need to tackle the processes of language use. This sequence is called pedagogic continuum. MANIPULATION REGULATION ABDICATION PRODUCT PROCESS Language pre selected for the learner creating conditions for the learner to foster a capacity to use language and to deploy grammar by the learner. language generated by the learners. (BYGATE,1994, p.229) - Regulating learner choice The most important aspect here is the more initiative is given to learners the more responsible they become for their own production. Teachers need to give learners practice in the language skills and at the same time teachers are partners not masters. As teachers we have to encourage students to become aware of the value of grammar within their own language production and guide them to use grammar for communicative purposes. 2.3 GRAMMAR AS SKILL There are some different ways of teaching grammar as skill. First, it is important to consider how listening and reading activities can combine a focus on meaning with attention to grammar. Listening and reading give opportunities for learners to notice grammar in context as part of the skill of making sense of written and spoken discourse. Teachers have to construct tasks which require learners to II

15 notice and to process grammar to complete the task successfully. Learners are encouraged to listen and read formulating predictions about what the text might be about, making relations from the lexis and gliding over much of the grammar. Second, we have to consider how learners can be guided to make their own decisions about how to deploy grammar in tasks where they are provided only with words. It is necessary to start with a target grammatical structure and require learners to manipulate this structure by changing the lexical items in some way. Sometimes it is done quite explicitly, as with a formal drill and sometimes less explicit, but it is certainly a very marked trend in product teaching. The suggestion here is instead of giving learners fully formed grammatical items, give them words instead, and get them to do the grammaticizing by themselves. "The great advantage of this approach is that the learners are now reshaping and improvising their own language, with a greater sense of involvement in the whole procedure. In effect grammaticization tasks lead to another kind of activity which is part of the teaching grammar as skill those in which learners reflect on the quality of their own language..." (BATSTONE, 1994,p.41) Finally we consider how learners can be guided to reflect more explicitly on the quality of their own grammar and to consider ways in which it might be improved. In teaching grammar as skill, the aim is to encourage greater attention to grammar in meaning focused work. The learners have been made more conscious of shortcomings in their language. But then, they may not. We know grammar has been an important objective of the task, but what have learners made of it all? The solution is to encourage learners to reflect on the quality of the language they are using. Through reflection activities teachers are providing a rationale for process teaching. Once a process task is over, teachers and learners do have a discussion about the language used and the purpose of using it. Motivating and educating learners to work in these ways can have a very positive feedback on the learning process. The learner is able to tune in to her own language, a skill which shelhe may then carry with his/her beyond the required attention to a wide range of language forms, each one occurring in the learners' 12

16 own discourse. Learners do not learn grammar on a conveyor belt system, systematically noticing and instantly strucluring each grammatical form. They need to keep re-noticing. Teaching grammar as skill can offer students opportunities to re-notice and restructure their hypotheses about the language learning process. 2.4 DECLARATIVE AND PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE TEACHING It is important to consider how best to present knowledge about grammar to students, then how to convert this into knowledge on how to use that grammar. Teaching provides declarative knowledge through a process of atomization. First, this knowledge becomes proceduralized, and so automatic that it is eventually similar in performance from knowledge internalized which is called acquisition. The problem is how to present declarative knowledge to the learner and how to help the learner convert it into procedural knowledge, because declarative knowledge will disappear once the procedural has been developed. For example: changing gear in a car becomes so automatic that you cannot explain to another person how to do it. The important aims are initial presentation of declarative knowledge, maintaining declarative knowledge and proceduralising declarative knowledge Initial presentation of Declarative Knowledge One type of motivation for providing and maintaining declarative knowledge is related to deployment in use as the learner requires a set of rules that are generalisable enough to apply overall. For example: in the case of the present perfect, the learner has to know how the participle is formed. Declarative knowledge is the first stage in the process of proceduralisation. Then, the knowledge representation should be translatable into procedural knowledge, it should be proceduralised.

17 Explanation of a grammar point is not important. The ideal is figurative and emotive description after the learner has first his/her personal instructions Maintaining Declarative knowledge By this we mean that explicit mention of rules regularly occurs maybe through exercises that in one way or another draw the attention to rules. The teacher needs to return to rules covered earlier because maintaining cannot disappear with proceduralisation Proceduralising Declarative knowledge The process of proceduralisation in one of atomization: making automatic. Atomization is an important learning skill because it releases conscious attention to higher order activities that require it. "A characterization of declarative knowledge is getting a skill right when minimal attention is available for getting it right." (MARTIN, 1994,p.126.) In terms of grammar a novice learner can only get structures correctly when there is full attention on them (focus on form). The atomization is getting the grammar right when there is message focus and no attention on form focus. But in natural language use there is full message focus because form is best acquired when focus is on meaning. This may be conceptualized as a statement that form is best learned when no attention is available for getting it right. One possible strategy for the facilitation of atomization would be gradually to deprive the learners of the attention they require to produce a given structure. We would do this by gradually increasing the learner's attention on meaning, leaving less attention available for focus on the form being practised. 14

18 2.5 TEACHING, INTERACTION AND PROCESS In language learning it is difficult to draw any significant boundary between the product, the form and the meanings of a language system, and the processes of language use. This is especially true for procedural knowledge. Some proceduralization is necessary to cope with the demands of language use and it is through the experience of language use that knowledge becomes proceduralized. Many scholars believe that the processes of language use, and interaction in spoken discourse, provide conditions for all the key stages of language learning. The learners are allowed to interact using their own resources through selfexpression. It means that learners can generate their own learning input which is rich in quantity and quality. Small group work in classrooms can provide conditions for this kind of interaction giving space for learners to converse without the kind of constraint which is typical of more controlled whole class work. If students are given enough opportunity to use language in this way, benefits can be considerable. These learners will have opportunities to re-notice and restructure forms, which will come and go as the process of interaction proceeds. But teachers have to be careful just giving repeated opportunities for students to interact as there is no guarantee that the resulting language will be of any great quality. This creates problems, because learners are repeatedly exposed to each other's input, and if this input is lacking in grammar, then the language which gets proceduralized may be poor. There is a key for grammar teaching. Teachers have to give students opportunities for language use in the classroom. We can not simply assume that learners will acquire the many skills involved, nor can we hope that knowledge will become proceduralized except through a lot of practice in real communication. In conclusion, there is evidence that grammar which is taught just through controlled exercises may not stay with the learner for long, unless teachers can provide for classroom interaction and language use very carefully. 15

19 3 GRAMMAR TEACHING The way of teaching has changed and the advice available was characterized by lack of clarity and consistency on the kind of grammatical models most relevant to pedagogy and the relationship between grammar study and language learning development. Consequently, the teachers have to analyse if their way of teaching grammar has been effective by analysing the pedagogic purposes which may require knowledge of grammar. These purposes include selecting the language learners are exposed to on the basis of grammatical progression, let the learners draw conclusions from their own experience, focus on grammar by elicitation, expect accuracy to develop gradually, sometimes use references to the L1, monitor the developmental stages through which learners pass, provide feedback on the learner's language production, talk about the target language system with learners, and assist them in developing a conception of it as a system. In conclusion, teachers have to be confident in their grammatical knowledge and confident that they know how to share their conceptual map of language as a system with their students in productive ways. 3.1 HOW TO EXPLAIN GRAMMAR Many teachers get confused about explanations of grammatical aspects but they are expected to explain with adequacy. Some do not teach grammar, but others think it is the most important skill in the language acquisition. There are three important features of grammar explanation: the grammar must be universally valid, must have psychological reality and must be maximally constrained. They refer to semantic and pragmatic information in grammar teaching. The functional explanation gives those conditions, which must predominate the real world. It is crucial to give opportunities, to draw learners' 16

20 attention to something important that is the beginning of any grammar explanation to her/him. There are 2 main functions of grammar explanation. The first important function is that it has a corrective objective. It implies that classroom attention to grammar aspects must be self initiated, not planned or controlled by the teacher. Learners have to produce by themselves. The other function of explanation is when the learner has no experience of trying to learn a grammar item and failing to. It might be based on experience and observation of failure, or the teacher's own experience of difficulties encountered when learning that specific grammar item. It might clarify to the teacher that there is a relationship between what is describable and what is learnable. But how can teachers explain well? Good explanations will have to be won by teachers from their own action research and learner's collaboration will be indispensable. In short, the development of good grammar explanations must be approached with care with the following suggestions: keep your explanations brief and simple; use charts or other visuals; illustrate with clear examples; do not get yourself and students tied up in knots over so called exceptions to rules; if you do not know how to explain something do not risk false information; correct learner's grammatical errors if it is necessary. 3.2 CONSCIOUSNESS AND AWARENESS RAISING APPROACHES Consciousness raising constitutes an approach to grammar teaching, which is compatible with current thinking about how learners acquire L2 grammar. It also constitutes an approach that accords with progressive views about education as a process of discovery through problem solving tasks. 17

21 Awareness is an ability to contemplate a language cognitively over which one has a high degree of control and about which one has therefore developed a coherent and relatively stable set of intuitions. Implicit knowledge that has become explicit. There are some differences between consciousness and awareness raising approaches. Consciousness raising isolates a specific linguisticfeature for focused attention. Learners are provided with data, which illustrate the target feature, and they may also be supplied with an explicit rule, describing or explaining the feature. They are exposed to utilize intellectual effort to understand the target feature and they may be required to articulate the rule describing the grammatical structure. The important aspect is that misunderstanding grammatical structure by the learner leads to clarification in the form of further data and description or explanation. Awareness raising isolates a specific grammatical feature for focused attention. Leamers produce sentences containing the target feature. They will be provided with repetition, perform the grammatical feature correctly and receive feedback. 80th are important in the grammar teaching process, even unrelated they should offer advantages to the learner. And teachers should use these techniques according to a specific situation because students have to know the functional aspects of a language and the correct use of formal structures. 3.3 GRAMMAR TEACHING IMPLICATIONS First, teachers begin to see all the syntactic, semantic and pragmatic factors resulting from the right choice. Second, they have to remind that language is a system and linguists are showing how true this is. Third, the use has been a key to the mysteries of the foreign language. The link between L 1 and L2 is an important aspect because it facilitates communication. Showing learners that they know already something might appear to be quite exotic in the l2, but there are parallels in the L1. As language teachers 18

22 we have to show learners that large parts of the foreign language grammar are already theirs. Explaining grammar using contrasts between L1 and L2 is likely not to favor only the learning of a particular grammar aspect, but also to provide learners with better insight for future learning of any other grammar aspect. It contributes to the learner's experience. 3.4 GOOD REASONS FOR TEACHING GRAMMAR The first important reason is the comprehensibility, that is, to know how to build and use certain structures which make it possible to communicate common types of meaning successfully. Without grammar instructions it is difficult to make comprehensible sentences. The second reason is the acceptability that in some social contexts serious deviation from native speaker norms can interrupt integration and excite prejudice because a person who speaks badly may not be taken seriously. Appropriate techniques are essential to the learning process and there are some important variables like age, level, and background that we have to consider too. Appropriate grammar focusing techniques are established in meaning and communicative contexts. It contributes positively to communicative goals and promotes accuracy within fluent, communicative language. Teachers should not disappoint students with linguistic terminology and motivation is essential. The variables can be age. Young children can profit from a focus on form and adults can use grammar to advance their communicative abilities. It is not necessary for teachers to insist exhaustively on accuracy at the beginning because they run the risk of blocking the acquisition of fluency skills and in the advanced level, grammar is not necessarily the most important; language skills instead of grammar work may be more suitable for improving all the skills. 19

23 Depending on our circumstances and our learner's aims we must make sure that we are teaching well only the paints of grammar that we need in order to reach these aims. We can base ourselves on the aspects above and we will have a better chance of teaching English, and not only grammar. 20

24 4 GRAMMAR IN THE SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION PROCESS Developments in early second language acquisition research have suggested that direct grammar teaching is a waste of time and even harmful. More recent development suggests that grammar still has a role to play in language teaching, but not in a direct manner. Instead it needs to underlie the methodologies that are used, so that it provides an organizing framework while other goals are simultaneously pursued to ensure a balanced development. There are some important strategies in the second language learning process: First of all we have the input that initiates the language learning process and contains a restrict set of tenses and structures. After that, the learner starts to notice grammar in some way and this process is called (intake). The process of acquisition that follows is when the learner incorporates a new learning item into his/her developing system or interlanguage. The next process is access when learners draw abilities from their interlanguage system during communication. The last one is output that observes results of the learners' efforts. Although it provides an alternative to grammar based teaching, the use of communicative language tasks plus interaction by the teacher provides corrective feedback on errors but it may not be sufficient to achieve acceptable levels of grammatical accuracy in learning. There should be a balanced development in relation to the three goals of restructuring, accuracy and fluency. 4.1 THEORY OF UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR IN RELATION TO SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION SLA also owes a considerable debt to another part of linguistics that is associated closely with NOAM CHOMSKY'S theory of Universal Grammar (UG). Chomsky argues that language is governed by a set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters, which are given particular settings in different languages.

25 Let us consider an example of a general principle of language which permits co-reference by means of some form of reflexive. In the English sentence: The actress blamed herself. The subject, 'actress', is co-referential with the reflexive, 'herself in the sense that both words refer to the same person. However, reflexives also vary cross-linguistically. In the case of English, a reflexive can only co-refer to a subject within the same clause, as in the example above. Thus, English only permits 'local controlling'. 'Long-distance controlling', where the reflexive co-refers to a subject in another clause, is prohibited. Thus, in this sentence: Emify knew the actress would blame herself. The reflexive must be understood as referring to the 'actress' and not to 'Emify'. However, other languages such as Japanese, permit long distance as well as local controlling. The question of whether learners whose L1 permits both local and long-distance controlling of reflexives can learn a language like English which permits only local controlling may seem a quite significant matter. In fact, though it concerns an issue of considerable theoretical importance the extent to which a language other than our mother tongue is debatable. There are two important aspects to clarify this theory: learnability and access to universal language Learnability Chomsky has claimed that children learning their L1 must rely on innate knowledge of language because otherwise the task facing them is an impossible one. His argument is that the input to which children are exposed is insufficient to enable them to discover the rules of the language they are trying to learn. This insufficiency is referred to as the poverty of the stimulus. For example, a child learning English needs to discover that a sentence like this is ungrammatical: Sam kicked fiercely his toy car. English does not permit an adverb between the verb and the direct object. Can this be learned only on the basis of input? The argument is that it cannot if the input consists only of positive evidence (Le. it provides information only about what is grammatical in the language) because learners can never be sure they will not hear a sentence where the adverb is between the verb 22

26 and direct object. Negative evidence (I.e. input that provides direct evidence of what is ungrammaticat in a tanguage) would make it possible for children to find out that sentences like the one just mentioned are ungrammatical. However, children typically receive only positive evidence; their parents do not generally correct their grammatical mistakes. Thus, it is argued, the input seriously undermines leaming. In other words, it does not provide the information needed for learning to be successful. In the case of L1 acquisition, then, there is a logical problem. How do children invariably learn the full grammar of their mother tongue when the information they need is not always available in the input? The answer is that children must have prior knowledge of what is grammatically possible and impossible and that this is part of their biological ability. But is this also the case in L2 acquisition? To answer this question we need to consider whether adult L2 learners have continued access to Universal Grammar or whether they depend on some other kind of learning mechanism. We will begin by considering whether access depends on the age of the learner Access to Universal Grammar There is, in fact, no agreement as to whether adult L2 learners have access to Universal Grammar. We will briefly examine a number of theoretical positions. 1. Complete access It is argued that learners begin with the parameter settings of their L1 but subsequently learn to exchange to the L2 parameter settings. An assumption is that full target-language competence is possible and that there is no such thing as a critical period. 2. No access The argument here is that Universal Grammar is not available to adult L2 learners. They depend on general learning strategies. According to this position, L1 and L2 acquisition are fundamentally different. Adult L2 learners 23

27 will normally not be able to achieve full competence and their interlanguages may manifest 'impossible' rules. 3. Partial access Another theoretical possibility is that learners have access to parts of Universal Grammar but not others. For example, they may have access to only those Universal Grammar parameters operative in their L1. However, they may be able to exchange to the L2 parameter setting with the help of direct instructions involving error correction. In other words, L2 acquisition is partly regulated by Universal Grammar and partly by general learning strategies. 4. Dual access According to this position, adult L2 learners make use of both Universal Grammar and general learning strategies. However, the use of general learning strategies can 'block' the operation of Universal Grammar, causing learners to produce 'impossible' errors and to fail to achieve full competence. This position assumes that adult learners can only be fully successful providing they depend on Universal Grammar. The existence of such contradictory positions shows that the role of Universal Grammar in L2 acquisition is still uncertain. In short, it comes down to whether L2 acquisition is to be explained in terms of a distinct and innate language faculty or in terms of general cognitive abilities. There is no consensus on this issue. It should be noted however that Universal Grammar does not demand to account for the whole of a language or even the whole of the grammar of a language. As such, it permits modification - the existence of different components of language that are learned in different ways, some through Universal Grammar and others with the assistance of general cognitive abilities. 24

28 5 GRAMMAR IN VARIOUS METHODS AND APPROACHES There are some important methods and approaches to grammar which help teachers to improve their knowledge in grammar teaching. These various methods and approaches provide the means for teachers to take the initiative themselves in pedagogic planning. The emphasis on critical reflection provokes the basis for effective action, but teachers need to be independent exploring principles and experimenting different techniques. Of course, these techniques will vary according to the learners background, objective, age, etc. 5.1 THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION APPROACH Originally used to teach Latin and Greek, this method was applied to the teaching of modern languages in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Its primary purpose was to enable students to "explore the depths of great literature", while helping them understand their native language better through extensive analysis of the grammar of the target language and translation. In this method grammar is learned by means of long and elaborate explanations. Students have to learn the language so that they can translate the passages well and much of its class time is devoted to talking about the language. While there is some variation, grammar-translation usually consists of explanation of a grammar rule, with example sentences, vocabulary presented in the form of a bilingual list and exercises are designed to provide practice in the grammar and vocabulary of the lesson. Most grammar-translation classes are designed for foreign language instruction and are taught in the student's first language. Grammar-translation is grammatically sequenced, the majority of the texts attempting to proceed from what the author considers easy rules to more complex rules. Each lesson introduces certain rules, and these rules dominate the lesson. It makes no attempt to help students manage conversations with native speakers. 25

29 In conclusion, grammar-translation assumes that conscious control of grammar is necessary for ability. In other words, learning needs to precede acquisition. This assumption requires that all target structures are introduced and explained. Therefore, there is no limitation of the set of rules to be learned to those that are learnable, transferable and not yet acquired. There is not any attempt to specify when rules are to be used. All the students will be able to use all the rules, all the time. 5.2 THE DIRECT METHOD The direct method originated in the nineteenth century and of this "active" method believed that students learn to understand a language by listening to it in large quantities. They learn to speak by speaking. Statements and questions are illustrated with actions, and students repeated both the language model and the action. For example, a sequence might be: "I am getting up. I am going to the blackboard. I am writing my name". The statements were followed by related questions such as, 'where are you going?' and later still by questions to class members such as, 'where is he going? /where did he go?'" (BRUMFIT, 1983, p.20.) The major characteristic of its grammar is that rules are not explicitly taught they are assumed to be learned through practice. Students are encouraged to form their own analysis about grammar. When grammar is taught, it is taught in the target language as all classroom language is in the target language. This includes the language of the exercises and teacher talk used for classroom management. The objective of the instruction is for the students to guess, or work out the rules of the language. The teacher asks questions that are hopefully interesting and meaningful, and the students' answer is then used to provide an example of the target structure. If this is well done, it can give a direct method condition of a conversation class. It is strictly sequenced which distorts efforts at real communication. 26

30 Students are given the tools for interactions in the classroom in the target language - they are soon able to initiate discussion with the teacher and ask questions about grammar. Classroom competence will be useful on the outside. There is no explicit aim of providing tools for conversation with a more proficient native speaker. Briefly, the direct method assumes that conscious control is necessary for acquisition, that conscious knowledge of grammar can be accessed at all times, and by all students. It demands full control of late-acquired structures in oral production from the very beginning and consequently encourages grammar use. 5.3 THE COGNITIVE APPROACH In this approach the teacher must move from the known to the unknown. The students' present knowledge basis must be determined so that the necessary prerequisites for understanding the new material can be provided. "Students must be familiar with the rules of the new language before being asked to apply them to the generation of language. Therefore, grammar should be overtly explained and discussed in a cognitive classroom". (CHOMSKY, 1957,p.32.) The cognitive approach states that competence precedes performance. In this case, competence is not the implicit knowledge of the native speaker, but it is conscious knowledge. "The cognitive code assumes, that once the student has a proper degree of cognitive control over the structures of a language, it will develop automatically with the use of language in meaningful situations." (CARROLL, 1966, p.87) In other words, learning becomes acquisition. The assumption of the cognitive code is that conscious learning can be accomplished by everyone, that all rules are learnable, and that conscious knowledge should be available at all times. Consequently, the structures will become automatic. l'""'~ E.::_~...~

31 5.4 THE NATURAL APPROACH In this approach distribution of learning and acquisition activities in communication is more important than form in beginning and intermediate levels of instruction, therefore most, if not all, classroom activities should be designed to evoke communication. Explanation and practice of linguistic forms should be done outside the class for the most part. Explanations must be clear enough to be understood by students so that classroom time is not wasted on grammatical lectures or manipulative exercises. This method can be described by the principles that class time is dedicated primarily to providing input for acquisition. The teacher speaks only the target language in the classroom. Students may use either the first or second language. If they choose to respond in the second language, their errors are not corrected unless communication is seriously impaired. Homework may include formal grammar work. Error correction in employed in correcting homework. The goals of the course are Use mantic" I that is, activities may involve the use of a certain structure, but the goals are to enable students to talk about ideas, perform tasks, and solve problems. The entire objective of classroom practice in the Natural Approach is to provide comprehensible input. Natural Approach teachers utilize realia, pictures, and students' previous knowledge to make their speech comprehensible from the first day. Some tools for conversational management are provided in the form of very short dialogues, designed to help students speak with native speakers on predictable and frequent topics. Also, students are introduced, right from the beginning, to phrases and expressions that will help them control the teacher's input. 28