Science Education in Hong Kong

Transcription

1 Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized 'S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\ Education and Social Policy Departnent The World Bank September 1993 ESP Discussion Paper Series No. 8 Science Education in Hong Kong Kin Bing Wu E&wadm ad Sa Pokey D_'was a w* pw*r. VS_u w mpvd n Jmar ww of au M* No d mia so*at Wod Be* or ftle 5md qffraw* Dkwm or Aw commoa &Uy nw=m ld Uw be

2 Abstract This paper, one of a series of study on science and technology issues, aims to assess the extent to which science education in Hong Kong has promoted scientific literacy, and prepared students for scientific disciplines in higher education and science-related careers. It introduces the institutional context with reference to financing, selection and examination, teachers, curriculum, and allocation of instructional time. It then discusses Hong Kong students' mathematics and science achievement by international standards, and the determinants of achievement. Finally, it documents recent developments in curricular reform.

3 Contents Page Foreword... iv Executive Summary... v 1. The Institutional Context Financing Selection and Examination Teachers Curriculum, Textbooks, and Allocation of Instructional Time 5 2. Science and Mathematics Achievement The Goals of Science Education Science Achievement by International Comparison Determinants of Science Achievement Mathematics Achievement and its Determinants Recent Developments in Science Education Financing Assessment and Educational Research Teachers Reorganizing the Curriculum Development Structure Changes in Science Curriculum References \

4 Appendices 1. Operating Educational Institutions and Enrollment, Total Enrollment in Various Levels of Education, The Distribution of Schools by Source of Funding, Pupil-Teacher Ratios in Primary and Secondary Day Schools by Type of School Structural Indices for Schools of Similar Average Ability but Different Mathematics Achievement Levels The Qualifications of Teachers, Enrollment in Teachers' Training Colleges by Type of Course by Gender Profile of School Teachers, Reasons for Leaving Teaching, Median Hourly Wage by Subject Specialty and Economic Sector, Number of Candidates Sat in Selected Subjects in the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination, Results of Advanced and Higher Level Examinations Minimum No. of Teaching Periods Per Week in Each Subject in Primary School Basic Teaching Periods Per Week in Junior and Senior Secondary Forms Rank Order of Achievements in the IEA Science Study as Measured by Mean Scores Percentage of Schools Scoring Lower than the Lowest School Mean in the Highest Scoring Country The Inter-class Correlation (Rho) Gender Differences in Science Achievement (S;tandard Score Difference) Science Curriculum Coverage at the Time of the IEA Studies Science Process Skills Hong Kong's Secondary.1 Students' Sub-Test Scores Location of Means Amongst Quartiles for Twenty Countries. Hong Kong's Secondary 6 and 7 Students' Sub-Test Scores Location of Means Amongst Quartiles for Fifteen Countries Percentage of Items Rated Relevant to the Math Curriculum Quartiles of Measures of Population A Amongst Twenty Countries Quartiles of Measures of Population B Amongst Fifteen Countries Science Curriculum Revision Primary School Science Junior Secondary Integrated Science Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination in Mathematics and Science Subjects for Senior Secondary Biology Senior Secondary Chemistry Senior Secondary Physics Senior Secondary General Mathematics Examination Syllabus Senior Secondary Additional Mathematics Examination Syllabus Senior Secondary Computer Studies Examination Syllabus ii Page

5 35. Advanced Level Examination in Mathematics and Science Subjects for Advanced Level Biology Advanced Level Chemistry Advanced Level Physics Advanced Level Applied Mathematics Examination Syllabus Advanced Level Pure Mathematics Examination Syllabus Advanced Supplementary Level Liberal Studies Examination Syllabus Example of Socially Relevant and Technology Related Physics Exercise 114 iii

6 Foreword Science education imparts a method of inquiry and a systematic way of processing knowledge about the physical world. For this reason, science education provides part of the foundation for any knowledge-based effort to improve health, nutrition, family planning, environment, agriculture, and industry. Science education has two broad purposes. The first purpose is to promote scientific literacy among citizens on matters directly affecting their own lives and the society so that they can make decisions based on information and understanding. This is essential for the sustainable development of a modern, technological society. The second purpose is to build up the technological capability by equipping the future workforce with essential science-based knowledge and skills, and by preparing students for scientific disciplines in higher education and science-related careers. Given the potential benefits, the provision of quality science education to all children will have far reaching consequence on a country's development prospect. This study aims to assess the extent to which science education in Hong Kong has been able to promote scientific literacy, and to prepare students for scientific disciplines in science-related careers. In this sense, it examines the broader foundation on which the technological capability will be built. It is intended to be a companion paper to "Higher Education in Hong Kong: Investment in Science and Technology During the Time of Economic and Political Change," by the same author. The higher education paper examines the past and present policies towards tertiary education in Hong Kong. This paper on science education begins by introducing the institutional context: the school system, financing, selection and examination, teachers, curriculum and allocation of instructional time. It then discusses Hong Kong students' mathematics and science achievement by international standards, and the determinants of achievement. Finally, the paper will document the recent developments to meet the political, economic, and technological challenges of the future. Erik Thulstrup and Lauritz Holm-Nielsen Senior Science and Technology Specialists Education and Social Policy Department The World Bank iv

7 Executive Summary Improving science education at the school level is particularly relevant to Hong Kong's recent drive to strengthen its technological capability. This paper aims to assess the extent to which science education in Hong Kong has been able to promote scientific literacy, and to prepare students for scientific disciplines in higher education and science-related careers. It will also document recent developments in science education. In the Second International Study, a large-scale cross-country assessment of science achievement conducted in the first half of the 1980s by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA), Hong Kong's Secondary 7 (Grade 13) students ranked first in physics, first in chemistry, first in mathematics, and second in biology among all participant countries. However, the Primary 4 and Secondary 4 (Grade 10) students performed poorly. The case of Hong Kong thus presents a puzzle for science education. Why did the primary and junior secondary students do poorly, while senior secondary students were able to excel? What were the factors contributing to the high achievement of the senior secondary students? What was the implication for scientific literacy among the broader student body? What measures have been taken in order to strengthen science education? This paper attempts to address these questions in three sections. The first section examines the school system and the major issues that affects the quality of education -- financing, selection and examination, teachers, and curriculum and allocation of instructional time. The second section discusses the determinants of achievement by addressing how the curriculum coverage, timeon-task, test relevance, teachers, teaching and learning process, gender, family background, and students' aspiration and interest have affected learning outcomes. The third section examines recent development in science education. At the primary and junior secondary levels (Grades 1-9), science achievement was adversely affected by inadequate curricular coverage, deployment of non-science specialists as science teachers, a teacher-centered instructional approach that emphasized rote memorization instead of understanding of scientific concepts, low career aspirations of students, lack of attention to girls' academic performance in science, and low level of educational attainment of parents. At the matriculation level (Grades 12-13), science achievement was positively affected by high-test relevance of the curriculum, increased allocation of instructional time to science subjects, high frequency of homework and tests, the use of highly motivated science specialist teachers, and a more experimental approach to teaching scienc\e. The selectivity effect is also at work - - students who successfully passed highly competitive examinations to reach the matriculation level had overcome possible disadvantaged family background. Girls did less well than boys in physics and chemistry, but performed better than boys in biology. Section 3 describes the recent developments in science education, initiated partly as a response to the IEA findings and partly to meet the future political, v

8 economic, and technological challenges. The measures taken include curriculum revision, re-structuring of educational governance, financing, and administration, increasing use of research to guide educational policy decisions, increasing the professionalism of teachers, and promoting investigative approach to teaching and learning. The new science curricula at various levels include socially relevant topics and emphasize the interconnections between science, society and technology. Exercises and questions increasingly ask students to perform decision making, i.e., apply scientific concepts to explain and propose solutions to real life problems. vi

9 1. The Institutional Context The school system in Hong Kong comprises six years of primary education (Primary 1-6), three years of junior secondary education (Secondary 1-3 or the equivalent of Grades 7-9), two years of senior secondary education (Secondary 4-5 or Grade 10-11), and two years of matriculation course (Secondary 6-7 or Grade 12-13). Universal free education was extended to primary education in 1971, and to junior secondary education in Enrollment in the grammar stream in the senior secondary level rose from 60% in 1978 to 85% in 1992; a further 10% will enroll in the vocational stream. Enrollment in tertiary education will be increased from 18% of the age group in 1991 to 25% by (Appendix 1). The recent universal provision of secondary schooling and expansion of higher education have been made possible by Hong Kong's rapid economic growth and declining fertility (Appendix 2). Now that the goal of quantitative provision has been realized, qualitative improvement remains a challenge. The improvement of quality is of paramount importance to science education because partial knowledge of the physical world will not achieve the optimal results, and inferior products will never be able to compete on the international market. Meeting the challenge of qualitative improvement entails, among other things: (i) ensuring equitable allocation of resources to all schools to minimize the variations in learning outcomes among different schools; (ii) making selection and examination fairer and supportive to innovative teaching and critical thinking; (iii) ensuring the recruitment, retention, and the continuing education of high-calibre teachers; and (iv) updating and ensuring the relevance of the curriculum to society. The following sections discusses the broad issues of financing, selection and examination, teachers, and curriculum and allocation of instructional time within the school system as they have affected science education in the past. 1.1 Financing The modes of financing directly impact on the deployment of instructional resources, the quality of education provided, and the academic achievement. Schools in Hong Kong can be broadly divided into three categories: government, aided, and private schools. Government schools have accounted for no more than 7.5% of all schools at any given time. The vast majority are aided schools, which have traditionally been run by Catholic orders, Protestant denominations, Buddhist and Islamic organizations, and Chinese clan-, and locality-based organizations. The private schools are usually profit-making institutions. Most lhong Kong Government, Hong Kong 1992, p. 132 and

10 secondary schools offer instruction from Secondary 1-5, but not necessarily Secondary 6-7. In aided schools, the government pays for 80% of the capital costs and 100% of the recurrent costs, including the salaries of teachers and administrative personnel and other instructional expenses. In return, these schools abide by the government's Code of Aids which specifies the standard of physical facilities, teacher qualifications, hours of instruction, and teacher-student ratios. Finally, access to schooling has been expanded and standards raised by the government's extension of financial aid and regulations to private schools. 2 The number of government and aided primary schools grew from 43% in 1967 to 88% in Similarly, the number of government and aided secondary schools rose from 17% to 82% over the same period (Appendix 3). In the 1970s and 1980s, to supplement the supply of subsidized places, the government paid the private schools a certain amount for providing a place to a student within the age of compulsory education. 3 This "Bought Place Scheme" (BPS) was a major source of revenue for private schools which otherwise received neither capital or recurrent cost financing from government. The per pupil expenditure in government-aided schools was about three times as high as the price of a bought place in private school. Students were allocated to subsidized Secondary 4 places according to their results in public assessment during Primary 6 -- the better students were assigned to aided schools, which were often the schools of parental choice, and the weaker ones 1:o private schools. 4 The different modes of financing contributed directly to great variations in academic standards among schools. Private schools are often housed in a multi-story building with limited space for library or laboratories. Aided school teachers receive the same salaries as teachers irm government schools, and many of the benefits, while private school teachers do not. The work load of private school teachers is much heavier and class size bigger (Appendix 4). The different schools have tapped into very different pools of teachers -- government and aided schools attract university graduates, and the private schools nongraduates. A study comparing students of similar numerical aptitude scores but enrolled in different types of schools found that those in aided schools had higher levels of mathematics achievement (47.8%) than those in private schools 'The vast majority of kindergartens for the 3-to-5-year-olds remain privately run, while tertiary education, and vocational and technical education and training are publicly-funded. 3 A distinction must be made between -the private schools in the BPS, and schools for British children and international schools. 4 A Perspective on the Education of Hong Kong: Report by a Visiting Panel, November,

11 (36.6%).5 Aided schools on average have lower student to teacher ratio, and a higher percentage of mathematics specialists. Aided school mathematics teachers on average had more years of teaching experience, mathematics education, and pedagogical training, and fewer classes per week (Appendix 5). 1.2 Selection and Examination Where an education system cannot provide universal access at all levels, examinations are often used to allocate educational opportunities. In Hong Kong, selection takes place -at Primary 6, Secondary 3, Secondary 5, and Secondary 7 for placement at the next higher level. In Primary 6, selection is made for grammar, technical, and prevocational streams, as well as for places in government, aided, and private schools. 6 In Secondary 3, students compete for subsidized places in Secondary 4.7 In Secondary 5, students take the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE), which serves a similar function as the former Ordinary or "O" Level of school-leaving examination in the United Kingdom. Students who pass five subjects in HKCEE, including English and Mathematics, will be certified as having completed secondary education. For the majority of students, it is the terminal level. The results of HKCEE have been used as criteria for selection by employers, as well as for admission to teacher training colleges, and various sub-degree programs in polytechnics and post-secondary colleges. Students who have performed well in HKCEE can compete for places in Secondary 6 and 7 where they will be prepared for matriculation to degree 5 Alan Brimer and Patrick Griffin, Mathematics Achievement in Hong Kong Secondary Schools, 1985, p The "Secondary School Places Allocation Scheme" (SSPA) assigns Primary 6 students to Secondary 1 places through a mixed mechanism of internal school assessment, which is scaled by a centrally administered verbal and numerical aptitude test, and parental choice. Students are assigned on the basis of their scaled marks to quintile ranges within each geographical region of their primary schools. Parents are given a list of secondary schools within the same geographical region to indicate the order of their preference. Students within each quintile are randomly selected and given a place of the school of first choice. The random assignment began from the top quintile. If the school of first choice is already full, then the student will be allocated to a school of second choice. After all students of the top quintile are placed, allocation of children of the second quintile will begin. This system of allocation enables children in the top quintile to enter schools of their first or second choice (usually a place in a government-operated or aided secondary school). Children in the lower quintiles are likely to be given bought places at private schools that are low in academic standards. 7 Before 1988, the Junior Secondary Education Assessment Test (JSEA), which covered mathematics, Chinese, and English, was used to scale internal school assessments. Allocation to Secondary 4 places was based on the scaled results. 3

12 programs in universities and polytechnics. Before 1992, there were two tracks of matriculation courses: (i) the one-year course (Secondary 6 only) leading to the Hong Kong Higher Level Examination for admission to the Chinese University of Hong Kong; and (ii) the two-year course (Secondary 6 and 7) leading to the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination for admission to the University of Hong Kong. The Higher Level Examination was abolished in 1992, and matriculation course are now uniformly of two years' duration leading to the Advanced Level Examination. Competition was particularly keen before tha late 1980s, when opportunities for upper secondary were limited and those for tertiary education was even more restricted. For example, in 1979, only 30% of Secondary 5 students entered Secondary 6, and only 9% of any age cohort in Secondary 1 reached Secondary 7.8 Repetition rates were high, and there had been a general tolerance of a threeyear age range in any grades. 40% of the students repeated at least once by Secondary 1. The combined effects of different modes of financing and competitive examinations resulted in selecting a very small minority at the expense of the vast majority in the past. These mechanisms; impacted negatively on the development of broad scientific literacy, but they were able to concentrate resources on educating a selected few to a high level. This issue will be revisited in the discussion on the determinants of science achievement in Section Teachers The requirements for teachers' qualification are different for primary and secondary schools. Primary schools do not require teachers to have university degrees, but government and aided secondary schools do. These various requirements have given rise to diverse profiles of primary and secondary teachers. Primary school teachers. Throughout the decade of the 1980s and in the 1990s, over 93% of the primary school teachers were not university graduates (Appendix 6). They were trained in three Colleges of Education -- Grantham, Northcote, and Sir Robert Black --, which are run by the Education Department. The Colleges provide full-time, three-year, pre-service programs to Secondary 5 graduates, and two-year courses to Secondary 6 or 7 matriculants. The Colleges also offer part-time, in-service training courses of two or three years' duration to teachers of kindergarten, primary, and junior secondary classes, as well as re-training courses lasting five or seven weeks. (Appendix 7). In 1991,9 75% of primary school teachers were women. Their average age was 39. The vacancy rate was 1.6%,' and attrition rate was 9.4%. The 8 Brimer and Griffin, 1985, p Education Commission Report No. 5: The Teaching Profession. June, 1992, p. 4

13 feminization of the profession, the older age group, the lesser academic qualification relative to secondary school teachers contributed to a lower attrition rate and vacancy rate. (Appendices 8 and 9). Secondary school teachers. A recognized university degree with a subject specialty is a requisite to teaching in government or aided secondary schools. But pedagogical training is not a requisite to teaching at the secondary level. Analysis of the 1986 census data shows that salaries for university graduates in the education sector were among the highest in all major economic sectors, besides the medical profession (Appendix 10). Therefore, teaching was an attractive profession for graduates. During the 1980s, about 20-40% of all graduates of local universities entered the teaching profession.l1 In the 1980s, about 60% of secondary school teachers were university graduates. Most of the non-graduate teachers taught in private schools before their schools were converted to aided schools. Schools which have gone through the conversion were allowed to retain the non-graduate teachers to avoid excessive disruption, even if these exceeded 30% of the established teaching posts permitted by the government. The official target is to have 75% of teachers being university graduates. Graduates who wish to obtain pre-service or in-service pedagogical training by attending postgraduate education courses at the Faculty/School of Education in the University of Hong Kong and the Chinese University. There are full-time pre-services courses as well as part-time and evening in-service courses, leading to Certificate/Diploma of Education. The universities also offer short courses in curriculum, innovation, resource development, educational psychology, student guidance and counselling, professional development of teachers and educational administration. In 1991, about 50% of the secondary school teachers were males. The average age of teachers was 34. The vacancy rate was 2.6%, attrition rate 12%, and 9% of teachers were new to the profession (Appendix 8). The better qualification, the more portable the skills, the higher proportion of males, and the more youthful age group resulted in a higher turnover rate. Many young graduates have taught for a few years and then moved on to graduate schools or to other sectors. 1.4 Curriculum. Textbooks, and Allocation of Instructional Time Curriculum. The primary curriculum "aims to provide a broad, balanced and general education appropriate to the age group and the local environment The core curriculum includes Chinese, English, mathematics, social studies, science, health education, music, physical education, and art and craft. The junior secondary core curriculum aims "to provide an integrated course for nine lwu, op. cit. pp , and Hong Kong 1992, p. 131.

14 years of universal education."' 12 It includes Chinese, English, mathematics, science, social studies, Chinese history, history, geography, economics and public affairs, ethical/religious education, and practical and technical subjects. The senior secondary curriculum aims to prepare students for education beyond Secondary 5 as well as the world of work. English, Chinese and mathematics remain the core curriculum, but students are streamed into arts and sciences specialization in preparation for the HKCEE (Appendix 11). Science students are required to take biology, chemistry, and physics. Some will take additional mathematics, the prerequisite for studying science in Secondary 6. These subjects are each allocated four periods per week. Arts students will take history, geography, economics, or literature, alt:hough biology is taught in some schools to arts students. The Secondary 6 and 7 curriculum aims at preparing students for matriculation for universities (Appendix 12). While English and Chinese remain the core subjects, the rest of the instructional time is spent on specialized subjects in either arts or science stream. The two-year matriculation course, which resembles the British Advanced or "A" LeveL syllabus closely, allocates 8 to 12 periods per subject per week. While the teaching syllabuses for individual subjects at all levels are prepared by the Curriculum Development Council oi the Education Department, the senior secondary and matriculation syllabuses are coordinated with examination syllabuses prepared by the Hong Kong Examinations Authority, an independent body. Because of the importance of examination, curriculum, as well as the teaching and learning process, are driven by examinations. Textbooks. Schools are free to choose from any books available on the market for use in school. However, because of t:he need to help students pass examinations, school-level subject committees invariably choose from the textbooks recommended by the Education Department. Hong Kong has a thriving private publishing sector. Because the vast majority of schools use English as a medium of instruction, a few multinational firms such as Oxford University Press, Longman, and Mcmillan, dominate the market. Local publishers concentrate on Chinese language, literature, and history, and on lower grades where instruction is in Chinese. Competition for experienced authors and for market share is keen. Usually, publishers commission teachers or university lecturers to author the textbooks according to the syllabus. British authors living in the United Kingdom or expatriate authors are often commissioned to write English language, social science, and science textbooks. In recent years, the trend is to usea more and more local Chinese authors for all subjects except for English language. For textbooks to be put on the Education Diepartment's recommended list, they have to be submitted to the authorities. Review is conducted by a committee comprising officials and experts in the subjects; who will judge the textbooks 12 Ibid, p

15 according to the curriculum coverage, accuracy, and, in the case of social science subjects, for balanced view. The Education Department will convey these comments to the publisher, who will then ask the author to address them. The revised version will be re-submitted. When the Education Department is satisfied with the revision, it will put the approved textbooks on the recommended list for adoption by schools. The entire review process takes about nine months. Through this process, the intended curriculum is taught to students all over the territory. Allocation of instructional time to various subiects. In general, a high proportion of class periods is used for language instruction in order to make children proficient in both Chinese and English. This has been done at the expense of other subjects, including science. In Primary 1, 33% of the teaching periods are devoted to Chinese language instruction, which drops to 24% in Primary 4, 5 and 6. However, the proportion of teaching periods spent on English language rises from 15% in Primary 1 to 24% in Primary 4, 5 and 6. The combination of Chinese and English instruction accounts for 48% of all teaching period, whereas only 6% of the class periods are devoted to science throughout six years of primary education (Appendix 13). At the junior secondary level, Hong Kong schools spend 15% of the teaching periods on Chinese language, 18% on English language and 10% on science (Appendix 14). At the senior secondary level, 18-24% of the class periods are devoted to English teaching (Appendix 14). Because of streaming, there is more instruction time for specialized subjects, totalling 30% for biology, physics, and chemistry for students in the science stream. However, students in the arts stream will not have exposure to science, and vice verse To provide a comparative perspective, this paper will make reference to the educational practices and achievements of Japan and South Korea, both having strong technological capabilities and impressive economic performance. In the mid-1980s, Korean primary schools spend about 20% of the class periods at Primary 4, 5 and 6 on Korean language, and 13 to 14% on science. English is not taught in primary schools. In Japan, 32% of the class periods are devoted to Japanese language in Primary 1, which is reduced to 21% by Primary 5 and 6, and 10% of the periods are spent on science. English is not instructed in Japanese primary schools. At the junior secondary level, Japanese schools spend 15% of the teaching periods on Japanese, 15-21% on Englisk, and 12% to science at the junior secondary level. Korean schools spend 13-16% of the periods on Korean language, 13% on English, 3% on Chinese, and 13% on science. The impressive mathematics and science achievement of Korean and Japanese students at the primary and junior secondary levels is not unrelated to the instructional time allocated to science. At the senior secondary level, Japanese schools also practice streaming, but Korea schools make general science subject compulsory to all students. 7

16 2. Science and Mathematics Achievement 2.1 The Goals of Science Education The education authorities has recognized the importance of science and technology in Hong Kong. In 1973, the Board of Education reported 58 : "In this technological age, scientific knowledge and methods are applied to industry to produce goods which are competitive in price and quality and which satisfy world markets. It is generally acknowledged that progress in the economic and social development of a country depends, particularly in the absence of other resources, on its human resources and is directly related to the level of skills and knowledge of its work force." This position was subsequently adopted in the White Paper on Secondary Education (1974), and the White Paper on Senior Secondary and Tertiary Education (1978). It was also reiterated in the Report by A Visiting Panel (1983). The importance of science education in the 1990s is underscored by the recent policy drive to invest in science and technology by increasing research funding, emphasizing university and industry cooperation, and establishing the University of Science and Technology. These official positions, however, have not been reflected in increased allocation of instructional time to science subjects, or in making science a core curriculum in senior secondary education. However, because mathematics has consistently been tested in all examinations, the level of mathematics achievement is relatively high. This, in turn, has a positive effect on science achievement. Hong Kong's science curriculum follows the British science curriculum, such as the Scottish integrated science curriculum and the Nuffield physics projects. Primary science aims at "widening the child's sphere of experience through exploration of the environment."59 Secondary 1-3 science emphasizes observation; Secondary 4-5 science stresses an interpretative approach with some Japanese schools spend about 18-24% of periods on English, while Korean schools spend 21-24% of the periods on English, 8-14% of the time on Classical Chinese, and 11% of the time on elective subjects of French, Spanish, Japanese and Chinese. See Republic of Korea, Education in Korea, 1986 and United States Department of Education, Japanese Education Today, The quote is taken from Mark Bray, "Is Ecomomic Growth Linked to Science and Technology Education?" in World Bank/British Council, Educating for Capability: the Role of Science and Technology Education, Vol. II, October, Syllabuses for Primary Schools: Primary ScLence. 1981, p. 4. 8

17 quantification of concepts; and Secondary 6 and 7 science demands further refinement of concepts and development of scientific skills.6 0 Since its introduction in 1973, integrated science curriculum has been adopted by 98% of secondary schools at the Secondary 1 and 2 levels. At Secondary 3 level, about 40% of schools teach biology, chemistry, and physics as separate subjects.6 1 While the stated aims of science education at every level include both the development of cognitive skills and affective aspects (such as an appreciation of all forms of life, and respect for the environment), assessment objectives often concentrate on the cognitive side alone. On the whole, science curricula from the senior secondary level on up are very academic in nature. They aim at conveying scientific concepts and principles, and developing cognitive abilities and skills based on the prescribed subject matter. 2.2 Science Achievement by International Comparison The first systematic effort to analyze science curriculum, survey the classroom processes, and measure the learning outcomes in Hong Kong was made under the aegis of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (1EA). 62 The IEA has conducted two international studies on mathematics and science achievement, the first in 1970 and the second in the 1980s. The first study had relatively few participants from developing countries. The second study, having benefitted from past experience, are massive cross-national efforts to measure input, process, and output variables for comparative purposes. The IEA constructed international achievement measures in various mathematics and science subjects. It also developed attitude scales and background information questionnaires for students, teachers, and schools principals to gather information on the intended and implemented curriculum, which can be used to explain differences in the achievement outcomes. The IEA also constructed a National Case Study questionnaire to gather information on key national indicators of education, such as the age of entry to school, the average teacher salaries in relation to GNP per capita, and the actual length of the school year in days and hours. The tests were administered to thousands of randomly selected students in participant countries. These include advanced industrial, socialist, newly industrialized, and developing countries. In certain tests, there were nearly fifty countries participating in the study, although there were fewer countries in other tests. 6 0 Syllabuses for Secondary Schools: Syllabus for Science (Forms I-III), 1986, p Education Commission Report No. 4: The Curriculum and Behavioral Problems in Schools, 1990, p Neville Postlethwaite, "Cross National Convergence of Concepts and Measurement of Educational Achievement."

18 The Mathematics Study had two populations. Population A was defined as the grade in which the majority of students would reach the age of 13 by the middle of the school year. In Hong Kong, this population was found in Secondary 2 (the equivalent of Grade 7 in other countries) where 52.6% of the students were 12 years old and 31.6% were 13 years old. Population B was defined as the grade which precedes university admission. In most cotntries, this is the equivalent of Grades 12 and 13. In Hong Kong, this population was found in Secondary 6 and 7, the preparatory course for both the Higher Level and Advanced Level Examinations. The age groups were the 18- and 19 year-olds. A stratified sample was taken from schools classified according to three identifiers: (i) publicly funded (government and aided) or privately funded; (ii) English-language or Chinese-language; and (iii) boys, girls, or co-educational. However, because there was no private, boys, Chinese-language schools for Population A, only eleven strata existed. 5,429 students were drawn from 133 classes. For Secondary 6 of Population B, there were not enough private, singlesex Chinese-language schools. As a result, 2,780 students from 101 classes were sampled from nine strata. For Secondary 7 of Population B, 414 students from 30 classes were drawn. As English was used exclusively at Secondary 7, the strata included only English-language, private and public schools of both single-sex and co-educational student bodies. The Science Study had three populations. Population 1 was defined as the modal grade of 10-year-olds (Grade 4/5 in most countries), Population 2, the modal grade of 14-year-olds (Grades 8/9), and Population 3, students studying science in the final year of secondary education (Grades 12/13). In Hong Kong, these populations are found in Primary 4, Secondary 2, and Secondary 6 and 7. A stratified sample was taken from 12 stratum defined in the same way as the mathematics study. However, because some combinations of identifiers did not exist, a stratified sample of 6% of Populations 1. and 2 was drawn from classes that were divided into 8 to 9 strata. 5,342 Primary 4 students from 146 classes, and 4,973 Secondary 2 students from 132 classes were tested. A stratified sample of 50% of Population 3 was taken. About 6,000 Secondary 6 students, and 3,600 Secondary 7 students took the science tests which included general science and specialized subjects in biology, chemistry and physics. A significant number of the Population 3 students who took the bio.logy specialist test did not specialized in biology. Data were also collected on student background, teacher characteristics, and school information. These data made possible an examination of the effects on achievement of family background (such as parental education and occupation), students' perception of science and career aspirat:ion, the curriculum coverage, teachers' qualification and experience, and the teaching and learning process. The mathematics tests were adminis\tered in ].981, and the science tests in 1984 and The Secondary 6 & 7 students who took the mathematics tests in 1981 entered Primary 1 around 1971 when primary education was made universal and compulsory. Other secondary school students who took the tests entered the school system at various time in the 1970s. They were the beneficiaries of the increased educational opportunities of the decade. Their levels of achievement reflected the accomplishments and failures of the system as a whole. 10

19 Hong Kong students' performance is compared with that of their counterparts in participant countries by the following criteria: (i) the overall pattern of achievement among various levels of education as indicated by the average score; (ii) the percentage of schools scoring lower than the lowest average score in the highest achieving country; (iii) between-school variations; and (iv) gender differences in science achievement. The following paragraphs will look at each of these criteria at three levels of education. Overall pattern of achievement. Hong Kong students' performance at three levels of education displayed a very similar pattern of achievement as British and Singaporean students. The average scores were low at the primary and junior secondary levels, but high at the matriculation level. Hong Kong's Primary 4 students ranked 17th among 19 participant countries/regions; Secondary 2 students ranked 20th among 26 participant countries/regions; Secondary 7 students ranked first in physics, first in chemistry, and second in biology among 19 participant countries/regions. Even Secondary 6 students who took the same test as Secondary 7 students ranked second in physics, fourth in chemistry, and sixth in biology (Appendix 15).63 This pattern of low scientific literacy during compulsory basic education years but high achievement at the university preparatory level reflected Hong Kong's adoption of British science curriculum and the elitist characteristics of the British education system. In contrast, students in Japan and South Korea performed exceptionally well at the primary and junior secondary levels, reflecting a generally high level of scientific literacy in Japan and South Korea 6 4 (Appendix 15). The performance of Secondary 6 and 7 students provided good indication of the capabilities of a selected group of potential scientists. In Hong Kong, 20% of the age group took physics and chemistry at Secondary 6, and 12% at Secondary 7, compared with 37% and 14% of the age-group studying physics and chemistry in South Korea, 11% and 16% in Japan, 6% and 5% in England, 7% and 6% in Singapore, and 1% and 2% in the United States. 65 Taking into consideration the relatively high proportion of the age-group in Hong Kong taking these courses and that 50% of the Secondary 6 and 7 students took the tests, Hong Kong students' ability to outperform the more selected group of students in other countries was quite an achievement. Although only 12% of the age-group in Secondary 6 and 7% in Secondary 7 studied biology, many students who took the biology test did not specialize in s3j. P. Keeves, Learning Science in a Changing World: Cross-national Studies of Science Achievement: 1970 to 1984, 1992, pp. 7, 13, and Although South Korean students at'the pre-university level did not have high scores, their average age was 17.11, younger than most of their international peers. Their participation rate was also much higher than most countries -- 38% of the relevant age-group studied biology, 37% physics, and 14% chemistry. Ibid, pp Ibid, pp

20 the subject. Therefore their good performance in biology was quite remarkable. Nonetheless, this achievement has to be evaluated against the fact that the average age of Secondary 7 students was 19.2, lci months older than Secondary 6 students, and a few months to a year older than their counterparts in other countries." 6 A maturation effect might be at work as well. The Rercentage of schools scoring lower than the lowest score in the highest achieving country. At the primary level, Japanese primary schools had the highest average score. In comparison, 77% of Hong Kong schools' average score was lower than the lowest school average in Japan, while South Korea had only 7% of the schools below the Japanese minimum (Appendix 16). At the junior secondary level, Hungary had the highest average score. 26% of Hong Kong schools scored below the Hungarian minimum, compared with only 1% of the Japanese schools and 5% of South Korean schools. Since Hong Kong students had only one more year to go before finishing compulsory education, their low level of science achievement suggests that scientific knowledge of workers entering the labor force immediately after the period of compulsory education was very weak (Appendix 16). Between-school variance as a ororortion of student variance 6 7. The greater the between-school variance, the greater the difference in school quality. In Hong Kong, at the primary level, 34% of the variance in achievement was between schools; this level was exceeded only by Singapore and the Philippines. At the junior secondary level, the between-school variance was 29%, about twice as great as South Korean schools. This between-school variance is consistent with the different modes of financing and variation in qualify between publicly-funded and private-funded schools discussed in Section 1.1. (Appendix 17). In comparison, in Japan, only 4% of the variance in achievement was between schools, indicating that it did not matter which schools junior secondary students went to, they would have learned as muclh and achieved as well. Since little of the variance is due to between-school difference, the quality of Japanese schools is even throughout the country. (Appendix 17). Gender differences in science achievement. Intelligence is assumed to be fairly evenly distributed between females and males, but societal selection of boys for scientific careers often leads to neglect for girls. This is reflected in boys having higher standard scores than girls in most countries (Appendix 18). In Hong Kong, a differential in achievement between boys and girls exists from an early age, and increased even more significantly with the levels of education. Primary 4 boys performed better than girls, although the variance for boys was greater. Secondary 2 boys exceeded the girls even more. By the time of matriculation, boys by far outperform7ed girls in physics and chemistry. In biology at the matriculation level, however, girls performed better than boys. (Appendix 18). 66 Ibid, pp IEA Science Achievement in Seventeen Countries, 1988, p

21 The proportion of boys studying each branch of science was far greater than girls, although the proportion of girls studying biology was 10% higher than girls in other sciences. The greater standard deviation for boys in every branch of science suggested that more boys than girls who were on the borderline of academic ability were persuaded to study science in senior secondary school and were admitted to science course at the matriculation level Determinants of Science Achievement The IEA found that student achievement was positively related to the curriculum coverage, the time spent on science (class time, laboratory work, tests, and homework), the academic qualification of teachers, and students' attitude towards science. Students' family background was also positively related to academic achievement at the primary and junior secondary levels, but not at the university preparatory level because the examination system had screened out the average students.69 Curriculum coverage and time-on-task. At the time of the IEA studies, science in the primary school was taught through natural study, which emphasized biology but neglected earth science, chemistry and physics (Appendix 19). It was allocated only two 30-minute periods in the weekly time table. The time allocation was half to one-third of the international standard. The British National Science Curriculum recommends a maximum of 12.5% of the total teaching curriculum allocated to science subjects at the primary level, amounting to about 4 periods per week. Moreover, primary schools were poorly supplied with science equipment, and experimental work was not emphasized. It is hardly surprising that Hong Kong students performed poorly because they did not have the opportunity to learn. At the time of the IEA study, the junior secondary curriculum was based on the Scottish Integrated Science course. Biology received much coverage, physics moderate coverage, and Chemistry very little. Electronics and nuclear power were completely neglected (Appendix 19). Nonetheless, secondary schools were well provided with scientific equipment, and experimental work was carried out. However, only four periods or 2.7 hours a week were allocated to science teaching at Secondary 1 to 3, as compared with the 15% of the curriculum or six periods recommended by the British National Science Curriculum Jack Holbrook, Science Education in Hong Kong: Achievements and Determinants. The Education Papers Series No. 6, Faculty of Education, University of Hong Kong, 1990, p " 9 The source of information of Section 2.2 is Jack Holbrook, Research Coordinator of IEA Center, University of Hong Kong. See Science Education in Hong Kon-: The National Report of the Hong Kong Science Studv, Vol. 1, 1989, and Vol. 2, Ibid, Vol. 2. pp

22 The IlEA study found that the scientific literacy was very low at the primary and junior secondary levels. After only one more year of compulsory schooling, about 75% of the Secondary 2 students in the mid-1980s would enter the workforce, and half of those who continue on to the senior secondary level would enter the arts stream. When they grow up, they will function as citizens and employees with very limited understanding of science and technology. The high level of achievement of Secondary 6 and 7 students in the IEA study was, to a large extent, a direct result of the curriculum and time-on-task. The Secondary 6 & 7 curriculum was extremely academic, and the test relevance was high, resulting in exceptional performance of thle students. The teachers. The IEA teachers' survey found that 91% of primary science teachers were not university graduates % of primary school science teachers were female, with an average age of 37. Not only were they trained at an earlier time, but the curriculum also required a very small portion of the teaching time to be devoted to science. Moreover, in-service training was infrequent. 63% of primary teachers and 42% of junior secondary teachers reported that they had not attended any in-service course in the previous 12 months. Secondary science teachers tend to be younger, over half being between the ages of 28 and 37. About 60% of junior secondary teachers were male, and the proportion of male teachers increased dramatical'ly at the matriculation level, particularly in physics. About half of junior science teachers were university graduates, and overwhelming majorit;y of science teachers at the matriculation level were graduates who specialized in science. Given the restricted access to university education in the 1970s and much of 1980s, these teachers were high achievers who had successfully passed highly competitive examinations, and also knew how to coach their students in taking examination. These teachers had a high interest in their subject and were keen to transmit their knowledge and interest to students. 722 of them reported that they attended an in-service course in the previous 12 mconths. The situation, however, was very different in private schools, where few university graduates were willing to work. There, 40% of science teachers in private schools had never attended in-service training. 72 The differences in academic qualifications, science specialist training, and frequency of in-service training, to a large extent, explained the poor performance of students at the lower levels and high performance at the higher level. The process of teaching and learning. At Primary 4, science teaching was teacher-centered. Students learned fact by rote memorization, but not from observation, experimentation, or library research. Little or no emphasis was placed on problem solving, interpretation, formulation of generation, and model 7lIbid, vol. 1, pp Holbrook, Science Education in Hong Kong: Achievements and Determinants. 1990, p

23 building, nor on the impact of science on society (Appendix 20). This is not conducive to the acquisition of scientific skills that should be the aim of science education. At Secondary 2, laboratory work was more frequent. However, model-building remained weak. Because the textbooks in the majority of school are in English, the teacher spends much time translating and explaining in Chinese. Work sheets is the main source of instructions. Little attention is paid to inquiry and self-initiative, not even at the Secondary 6 & 7 level.7 (Appendix 20). The students. Students' attitude towards science varies greatly between different levels of education. Over 20% of the student sample in Secondary 2 expected to leave school after Secondary 2, and to enter semi- or unskilled occupations. About 40% of them expected to leave school after Secondary 5. About 30% had aspiration for tertiary education. Their expectation was found to have matched their science achievement. Students at Secondary 6 and 7 had already studied science for more than 500 hours. Most of them found science enjoyable and relevant to every day life. High achievers in science reported that they liked science. 74 Family Background. It should be noted that about half of Hong Kong's population are immigrants from China, the majority of whom are of peasant origins. The level of educational attainment in the people had been low. In 1976, 26% of the whole population had had no schooling, 43% only primary education, 29% secondary education, and 2.3% post-secondary or university education. In 1988, 13% still had had no schooling, 30% only primary education, 47% secondary education, 6% post-secondary education, and 4.5% university education. 7 5 Females' level of educational attainment was much lower. 76 The IEA study found that family background affected achievement at the Primary 4 and Secondary 2 levels, but not at the matriculation level because students who reached that level were already a self-selected group. " The IEA survey found that 40% of the fathers of Primary 4 students and 55X of the fathers of Secondary 2 students had only primary education or less. 75% of the fathers of Primary 4 students and 80% of the fathers of Secondary 2 students were semiskilled or unskilled workers. The higher the fathers' educational attainment and occupational hierarchy, the better the student achievement at the primary and junior secondary levels. 7 3 Ibid, pp Ibid, pp Hong Kong Government, Social and Economic Trends and Social and Economic Trends , Hong Kong. 76Hong Kong Government, Hong Kong Annual Digest of Statistics, 1992, p Ibid, p

24 Mother's occupation was more homogeneouls in relationship to science achievement across various categories. 50% of the mothers of Primary 4 students and 65% of the mothers of Secondary 2 students had received only primary education or less. Children whose mothers were engaged in professional administrative position performed better. Sibling size was found to be significantly related to science achievement in Primary 4 and Secondary 2. Those with more siblings performed at a lower level. It is possible that educational opportunities were reduced among larger families of low socioeconomic status. Children in families which possess more books or made use of a dictionary were higher achievers in science at Primary 4 and Secondary 2. Parental occupation and education, sibling, size, and the number of books at home had very little correlation with student achievement at the Secondary 6 and 7 level, where students are selected on their academic ability and have overcome possible family background disadvantages. Conclusion. The IEA's achievement measurements are relative to those of other countries, not assessment of internal standards. Information is not available on the average standard and the distribution. After the IEA studies have identified the factors affecting achievement and the attendant problems, it is important to follow up with assessment to monitor progress in the future. 2.4 Mathematics Achievement and its Determinanl:s The strong relationship between mathematics and science achievement calls for an examination of mathematics achievement as well. In the IEA Second Study, the performance of Hong Kong Secondary 1 students in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and measure was at or above the median of the international scores, although they were weaker in statistics. At the matriculation level, Hong Kong students' results ranked first among all particlpant countries. Hong Kong's average scores of all the subtests (sets and relation, number systems, algebra, geometry, Functions and Calculus, and probability and statistics) were higher than the highest quartile among fifteen countries (Appendix 21). Hong Kong students' exceptional performance at the matriculation level explained partially why they did so well in physics and chemistry tests. The determinants of mathematics achievement as discovered by the IEA studies are as follows. 78 Curriculum Coverage. At the time of the IEA study, Hong Kong had three mathematics syllabi leading to the HKCEE--the tradlitional mathematics syllabus, the modern mathematics syllabus, and the -provisional mathematics syllabus. In 1983, the traditional and modern mathematics syllabi were amalgamated. The IEA test was relevant to Hong Kong's Secondary 1 curriculum, except in geometry, and highly relevant to the matriculation curriculum. Test relevance explains why Hong Kong did well in the test. Moreover, Secondary 7 in the British system is 78 Information on this subsection is drawr from Brimer and Griffin, Mathematics Achievement in Hong Kong Secondary Sclhools,

25 considered as the equivalent of the first year of university education in a US based system, as British-type universities only provide three years of education. This educational structure explains why Hong Kong's higher level curriculum is so demanding (Appendix 22). The students. Hong Kong's Secondary 1 students were on average younger than the international median age, but the standard deviation was also bigger (Appendix 23). Matriculation students were on average older, and the standard deviation was nearly twice as much as the international standard deviation. This reflected the imbalance between age and grade discussed in Section 1.2. There was an equal number of boys and girls in Secondary 1 because they were within the compulsory education age-group. However, at the matriculation level, boys accounted for 80% of the students. (Appendix 24). The schools. Hong Kong did not compare favorably with the international median in most school variables at both Secondary 1 and matriculation levels. On average, the sizes of school and class in Hong Kong were larger than the international median. There were fewer teachers per 100 students and fewer mathematics specialists in Hong Kong schools. (Appendices 23 and 24). The parents. In developed countries, parental education and occupation have been major determinants of achievements. However, these variables had less effect in Hong Kong. Among Secondary 1 students, 44% of the fathers were unskilled or semiskilled workers. 57% of the fathers and 70% of the mothers had only primary education or less, compared with the international median of 21% of fathers having only primary education or less and being unskilled or semiskilled, and 22% of mothers having only primary education or less (Appendix 23). This is different from the case of science education. Among matriculation students, 36% of the fathers were unskilled or semiskilled workers, and only 14% of the fathers were professionals or managers. 65% of the fathers and 81% of the mothers had only primary education or less. In contrast, in the international median, only 6% of the fathers were unskilled or semi-skilled workers and 30% were professionals or managers; 14% of the fathers and 17% of mothers had only primary education or less (Appendix 24). Parental variables, therefore, could not explain, in a simple way, the high levels of achievement in mathematics among Hong Kong students. The teachers. The average age of Hong Kong teachers of Secondary 1 was 29; that of matriculation students was 33, compared with the international median of 37 and 40, respectively. Not only were Hong Kong teachers younger, they had less teaching experience (6 and 9 years on average teaching Secondary 1 and Secondary 6 and 7, respectively, compared with the international median of 13 and 15). They also had less post-secondary mathematics study (2.3 and 5.8 years, verses the international median of 5.5 and 7.3 years) and less pedagogical training, but heavier teaching load (20 and 19 hours,\compared with the international median of 17 and 18.7 hours). (Appendices 22 and 23). Teaching. learning. and time-on-task. The average hours of mathematics teaching per class per year were , less than the international median (130.45) in Secondary 1. It was significantly more (181.60) than the international median (148.50) at the matriculation level. On average, Hong Kong 17

26 teachers spent more time explaining and students listening than the international median, indicating that Hong Kong classrooms were centered around the teacher. Hong Kong students were given more homework hours per class per week at the junior secondary level and 6.50 hours at the Secondary 6 & 7 level, as compared with the international median of 2.10 hours and 3.70 hours, respectively. Secondary 6 & 7 students in Hong Kong also spent more time on test, 45 minutes per week versus 33 minutes of the international median. The amount of time Hong Kong students spent on homework and tests in preparation for examination appeared to be a strong predictor of their high level of achievement. (Appendices 22 and 23). Examination and selection. None of the variables examined would provide any satisfactory explanation of Hong Kong students' mathematics achievement without reference to the examination and selection mechanism that drives the students. 7 9 Mathematics has been a major component in the selection and allocation of places for Secondary 1, Secondary 4, Secondary 6 and 7. Poor performance in mathematics in primary school was likely to lead to repetition, and low mathematics scores at Secondary 3 and Secondary 5 would mean they could not have the opportunity for further education. Given that all tests are norm-referenced, repetition has been an option for the academically less able students to remain in the system until they have succeeded in the examination or dropped out. This process weeded out weaker students when they were over the compulsory education age. The selectivity effect was even stronger at t:he higher level. For example, in 1980, over 48,000 Secondary 5 students took general mathematics in the HKCEE, the school-leaving examination, but only 16,000 of them sat the additional mathematics examination, which is the prerequisite for studying mathematics in Secondary 6 and 7. About half of the Secondary 7 students sat the Advanced Level Examination in pure mathematics, and one-third sat the applied math examination. They represented about 4% and 3% of the year cohort in the population. Hong Kong's students were also on average a few months older than the international average, and hence, a maturation effect was at work. Conclusion. Hong Kong.students' high level of mathematics achievement can be explained by the high test-relevance of the curriculum and the time spent on the task (instructional time, homework, and tests). The examination system which consistently tests mathematics skills at all levels kept teachers and students focus on mathematics. Although the opportunity cost of this focus is not yet known, one of the results is that the Hong Kong students performed well by international standards. 7 9 Brimer and Griffin (1985) concluded that the selectivity effect has an impact on the high levels of mathematics achievement among Hong Kong students. 18

27 3. Recent Developments in Science Education From the mid-1980s, educational governance has undergone major changes in the direction of widening local participation in the policy making process. The first step was the establishment in 1984 of the Education Commission, which includes representatives from various local education bodies previously not consulted by the government. The Education Commission immediately set out to review a wide range of educational issues and made policy recommendations regarding pre-schools, tertiary education, private schools, curriculum development, language instruction, counselling and guidance, remedial teaching, alternative curricula, assessments, uni-sessional schooling at Primary 5 and 6, corporal punishment, and the teaching profession. The overall direction of change is liberal and consistent with progressive educational trends worldwide. For example, access to higher education has been dramatically increased, greater flexibility and autonomy given to schools and teachers, and corporal punishment legally abolished. The impetus of change came from three sources. First, the post-war, Hong Kong-born generation has moved into positions of responsibility and are eager to shape their own destiny. Second, Hong Kong has reached a level of economic development that enables it not only to expand education but also improve quality. Third, the integration of Hong Kong's economy with China's, the transformation from a labor-intensive manufacturing center to an international financial and commercial center, the increasing international competition, and the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from Britain to China in 1997 have stimulated reform of education in order to meet the challenges of political, economic, and technological changes. The major reforms that affect science education indirectly are in the areas of financing, assessment and the use of educational research to assist policy making, improving the professionalism of teachers, and delineating the responsibility of curriculum development. Within the community of science educators, the result of the IEA studies also stimulated a re-examination of the aims of education and science curriculum. The most visible change is in relating science to technology, society and the environment. The following will illustrate these changes in greater details. 3.1 Financing To address the variation in school quality arising from different modes of financing, a "Direct Subsidy Scheme" (DSS) was introduced in 1991 to assist private schools in the BPS to improve class size, teacher training, and school facilities. A capital assistance loan scheme is devised to help non-profit DSS schools redevelop school buildings and make major structural repairs. This would undoubtedly assist private schools to recruit better qualified teachers and to improve science laboratories and libraries. 19

28 Under the new scheme, private schools can set their own curriculum, entrance requirements and fee levels. International schools are allowed to join the DSS. The BPS would be phased out by the year Public subsidy is provided for each student enrolled to private schools that meet specified standards Assessment and Educational Research The intense competition for subsidized places in Secondary 4 has been substantially reduced as the government has been extending its subsidies and as the number of school-age children has been on the decline. In 1988, the public scaling test in the Junior Secondary Education Assessment Test was abolished, and eligibility is based on internal school assessment. Beginning in the mid-1980s, standardized Hong Kong Attainment Tests in English, Chinese and mathematics have been carried out from Primary 1 to Secondary 3. The purpose is to help schools assess the achievement of students. In 1990, the Education Commission recommended the. introduction of a framework of attainment targets and related assessments aimeel at improving the teaching and learning in schools as well as providing for more effective monitoring and assessment of learning outcomes. Once these target-related assessments are developed, they will supersede the standardized Attainment Tests. There is also a new trend to conduct research to improve the process of teaching and learning, and to inform policy making. The universities have been actively involved in the research enterprise and the Education Research Establishment of the Education Department has also taken on increasing number of policy research. Examples are studies on the curriculum and teaching practices between the various levels of education, the effects of the change of medium of instruction in secondary schools, and the curriculum patterns and subject streaming at secondary level. The Education Research Establishment also participated in the IEA international literacy study project. These efforts, if extended to science education research, will improve science achievement. 3.3 Teachers To improve the quality of primary educatilon, the Education Commission recommends upgrading about 35% of primary teachling posts to graduate status within 15 years. The purposes are to encourage serving teachers to acquire a degree relevant to the needs of the schools, and to attract high calibre people into primary school teaching. A worrisome trend in recent years is that the percentage of university graduates who entered teaching has declined. For example, the number of primary 8 0 Education Commission Report No. 3: The Structure of Tertiary Education and the Future of Private Schools,

29 school teachers who were university graduates was reduced from 1,283 (7%) in 1980 to 431 (2.3%) in For secondary teachers, the decrease of university graduates was most dramatic between 1989 and 1991, dropping 65% to 60% within two years. (Appendix 6). The Education Commission Report No. 5 reported8 1 It has become harder in recent years for schools to recruit graduate teachers and an increasing number of those recruited have chosen not to acquire a postgraduate qualification in education, but leave the profession after a few years. This problem..has two causes. Firstly, the restructuring and growth of Hong Kong's economy has led to a growing mismatch between the demand for graduate manpower and the supply of new graduates. This has affected schools as much as other employers. Secondly, graduates now have a much wider choice of careers than in the past. The current expansion of tertiary education will increase the supply of new graduates from 1994 to the benefit of all professions. Whether schools can attract sufficient new graduates and provide enough satisfaction to retain them in the profession will depend on improvement in the working environment and on career opportunities for graduate teachers. Policy recommendations on improvement of school environment include strengthening programs for induction of new teachers, improving school management, cultivate school and family relations, adding more rooms for specialized activities, reducing workload through increasing teaching posts, providing career paths through increasing senior teacher posts, and professionalization of teaching. 82 A number of new support services have been provided to promote teachers' professional development. In 1989, the Education Department set up the Hong Kong Teachers' Center with a professional library and news bulletins. The center operates under an advisory management committee with wide representation from schools, teacher organizations and educational bodies. Since its establishment, over a thousand of activities, including a few international conferences, have been organized. Other means to enhance teachers' professionalism and to cater for a diverse range of learning needs and interests is the launching of the school-based curriculum project scheme by the Education Department in The scheme is designed to encourage schools "to adapt the centrally designed curriculum to suit the specific needs of their students." 83 Between 1988 and 1990, nearly US$200,000 were given in grants to support 89 projects in schools. However" due to the pressure of public examination, the majority of the projects involved producing teaching materials rather than to develop curricula. 81 Ibid, p See Education Commission Report No. 5: The Teaching Profession, Education Commission Report No. 4: The Curriculum and Behavioral Problems in Schools, 1990, p

30 3.4 Reorganizing the Curriculum Development Structure Curriculum development had been the responsibility of the Advisory Inspectorate of the Education Department up to The Inspectorate was assisted by the Curriculum Development Committee before 1988, and a reconstituted Curriculum Development Council (CDC) afterwards, the latter being an advisory body appointed by the Director of Education. The CDC drew its members mainly from the education profession. The CDC comprised a main committee, seven coordinating committees (kindergarten, primary, secondary, sixth form, special education, prevocational, and textbook), and 69 subject committees. Since its reconstitution, the CDC has revised and updated the syllabuses for many subjects, and designed a number of new ones. All the junior secondary, senior secondary, and matriculation level science curricula discussed in the appendices, as well as school-based curriculum scheme, are the works of the newly constituted CDC. The CDC is part of the Inspectorate, whose responsibilities are divided between curriculum development, school inspection, and organizing in-service teacher training courses. 8 4 In view of the fact that curriculum development is a central activity in the education process that clearly requires special attention and wider participation, the Education Commission recommended that the CDC be reconstituted to include participation of parents and employers, and the Curriculum Development Institute (CDI) be created to serve as a secretariat of the CDC, separate from the Advisory Inspectorate. In addition, the CDI is to be staffed partly by professionals form outside the civil services. The CDI will assume the following responsibilities: curriculum planning, including research, experimentation, innovation, and evaluation, providing and updating curriculum guides and subject syllabuses, developing resource materials and managing resource centers, liaising with the Hong Kong Examinations Authority, the Education Department Advisory Inspectorate and teacher training institutions on the development and evaluation of the curriculum, and reviewing textbooks. The CDC was reconstituted and the CD] established in These recent changes, plus the policy to convert half-day session for Primary 5 and 6 to full-day schooling, 85 are likely to have an impact on curriculum and instructional time allocation. Wiether more class periods will be allocated to science education at the primary and junior secondary levels, and whether science will be made the core curriculum at the senior secondary level remains to be seen. 3.5 Changes in Science Curriculum Beginning in the mid-1980s, science education in Hong Kong has undergone considerable change in terms of curriculum coverage and emphasis. Junior secondary integrated science curriculum was revised in 1986, senior secondary 4 Ibid, p e 5 Ibid 22

31 physics curriculum in 1988, biology and chemistry in 1992 (Appendices 27-31). Technology-related subjects such as computer studies were introduced in senior secondary level in the mid-1980s (Appendix 34). In addition, new matriculation level courses, known as advanced supplementary level in biology, chemistry, physics, and liberal studies, were introduced to provide more choices for students with a range of abilities and interests. These courses require two years of study but only half the teaching time of the advanced level. They are designed for students studying related subjects at advanced level (for example, physics), whose main interests lie in other disciplines, but who wish to keep up their knowledge in the subject at the advanced supplementary level (for example, biology). The new curricula, particularly in chemistry, at various levels introduce more socially and economically relevant topics, such as electricity and electronics in Secondary 3, environment in senior secondary biology and chemistry as well as in liberal studies at the advanced supplementary level (Appendix 41). They also place stronger emphasis on the connection between science, technology, and society. This is not only in tune with the worldwide trend in science education, 86 but is also appropriate to meeting the pressing need to inculcate in students a sense of belonging to Hong Kong so that they will become contributing citizens in the future. (See the Appendices 26-31, 36-38, and 41 for the curricular aims, objectives, and syllabuses of various science subjects at the primary, junior secondary, senior secondary, and matriculation levels.) The new curricula also reflect an awareness that science subjects at senior secondary and matriculation levels have to cater for students who will specialized in science and engineering at tertiary level, and those who will have no further formal contact with science. For example, the Advanced Level Chemistry syllabus is 87 "designed to make possible a course in chemistry which is comprehensive, satisfying and rewarding both to future specialists and to those not continuing studies in chemistry. Thus whilst attention should be paid to underlying concepts, candidates should also be aware of the economic, social, industrial and environmental implications of chemistry. Every endeavor has been made... (to reduce) the amount of memorization; it is hoped to put emphasis on understanding and to provide an opportunity for candidates to investigate for themselves.... the content is intended to be wide enough to offer candidates experience in the recognition, extension, 86 The recent curricular development in Hong Kong has been influenced by the "Science, Technology and Society" (STS) approach such as the "Chemistry in Community" by the American Chemical Society, SATIS by the British Association for Science Education, and Salter's Science by the Science Education Group of the University of York, United Kingdom. 8 7 Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination Regulations and Syllabuses: 1994, 1992, p

32 and interlinking of the pattern which form a distinguishing feature of chemistry." The new curricula emphasize the teaching of scientific concepts and processes, and promote the activity approach at the primary level and the investigative approach at the secondary level. The new approaches encourage the use of interactive methods (such as the use of structured discussion, role play and simulation, problem-solving, data analysis, surveys, practical work, design, case studies, and decision-making), concept mapping to show the relationship between ideas, relevant daily materials to enhance interest and demonstrate the application of scientific principles in real life situations (for example, using meat tenderizers and special washing powers to illustrate the power of enzymes). These new teaching approaches also encourage setting exercises and questions which require the application of scient:ificoncepts to everyday life situations. As example of such exercise is "How physics helps with the building of the Eastern Harbor Crossing. I (Appendix 42). The recent trend of using local academics and teachers to write science textbooks has also strengthened socially relevant contents. Extra-curricular activities, such as science clubs ran after school, interschool competitions 8 8, young inventor awards, story writing, fairs and olympiads, which have played an important role in promoting the study of science, and in linking science with concerns in the society, have been further encouraged in recent years. Hong Kong's science specialist teachers have an Association for Science and Mathematics Education, with the aim of promoting professionalism among science teachers and popularizing science to the general public. This association has been behind many successful extracurricular science activities and provides the linkage with overseas organizations such as the International Council of Associations for Science Education, and other professional bodies like the American Chemical Society. It has been playing an active role in promoting the STS approach. Conclusion. The extension of financial support to private schools, the reconstitution of the CDC and setting up of the CDI, the introduction of measures to raise the qualification of primary school teachers and to professionalize the teaching force, the use of educational research to inform policy making, the use of assessment to monitor learning outcomes, and the updating of science curricula are the necessary steps for improving science edtlcation. In turn, widespread scientific literacy and good preparation for tertiary level science and engineering education will provide the foundation on which to build the technological capability essential to meeting the future challenges. The lea's 88 The Joint Schools Science Exhibiti'bn (JSSE) is a very good example. Began in 1967, it is an annual event completely organized by students from different schools, who are elected by their peers. Students are responsible for the entire process, from planning, fund raising, developing and exhibiting projects to judging projects. Projects are judged on their own merit and their ability to communicate to the public. 24