2. Educational Statistics How to Arrive at?
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1 2. Educational Statistics How to Arrive at? 2.1 Census and Sample Surveys There are two approaches in collecting information, namely, census and sample surveys. The total count of all units of the population for a certain characteristic is known as complete enumeration, termed as census survey. The money, manpower and time required for carrying out complete enumeration will generally be large and there are many situations with limited means where complete enumeration will not be always possible. When only a part, called a sample, is selected from the population and examined, it is called sample enumeration or sample survey. A sample survey will usually be less expensive than a census survey and the desired information will be obtained in less time. Despite the advantages of sample survey, if information is required for each unit, census survey is the only answer. The information to be collected in a large-scale educational survey is temporally dynamic and it cannot be completed in one day. Hence, it is necessary to fix up a date as on which the information will be collected. The date to which the data/information refer to is called date of reference of the survey. There are certain other important aspects that should be kept in mind while conducting an educational survey on school education. Subsequent sections will discuss these aspects one by one. 2.2 Objectives In a survey, the first step is to lay down a clear statement of objectives. The user should ensure that these objectives are commensurate with available resources in terms of money, manpower and the time limit of the survey. Needless to emphasize, if the measures of development are to be meaningful, they must be consistent with the objectives of development [Singh (1994) and Singh (2004)]. The objectives should address the commitment made by the country at the global conferences including existing national policies and priorities. The objectives set up on these grounds on school education will obviously fulfill the need of educational planners, administrators and researchers. The survey on school education whether on census or sample basis should include following aspects on a reference date that might be derived after translating the set grounds of national concerns in India and elsewhere in the world. Availability of schooling facility for primary, upper-primary, secondary and higher secondary stages within the habitations (including SC/ST) in different population slabs by social groups. In case the facility is not available within the habitation, the distance at which available.
2 Availability of basic facilities in the recognised schools such as building, classrooms, drinking water, electricity, urinals, lavatories, furniture for students and teachers, incentive schemes and beneficiaries, medical checkup and vaccination/inoculation of students. Class-wise enrolment by social groups (Total, SC, ST and Educationally Backward Minority Community (Muslims) by sex) in primary, upper primary, secondary and higher secondary stages of recognised schools. Number of children with disabilities enrolled at primary, upper primary, secondary and higher secondary stages of recognised schools. Subject-wise enrolment by sex in academic stream and availability of qualified teachers at higher secondary stage of the school. Availability of science laboratories and library, physical education teachers, librarian, guidance counselor, non-teaching staff in the recognised secondary and higher secondary schools. Position of teachers (by sex and social groups covering SC/ST/OBC /Others) with academic and professional qualifications at different school stages in recognised schools. Distribution of recognised schools in regard to languages taught and languages used as medium of instruction. Enrolment and teachers in primary/upper primary classes of unrecognized schools. Position of enrolment and instructors in schools/centers under Education Guarantee Scheme & Alternative and Innovative Education (EGS&AIE). Number of children and teachers by sex in pre-primary schools. Disability-wise enrolment, teachers, structural facilities, equipments and instructional material in special schools. Position of enrolment and teachers in oriental schools, viz., Maktabs, Madrasas and Sanskrit Pathshalas. Class-wise enrolment by single age, new entrants, promotes, repeaters and attendance in the context of universalisation of elementary education. Financial data (recurring and non-recurring) on income and expenditure by management of institutions for school education. 9
3 2.3 Unit of Enumeration The population divided into parts, which are distinct, unambiguous and nonoverlapping and cover the entire population are called units of enumeration. In case of sample survey, it becomes the sampling unit. It may be village, town, school etc. In sample surveys, the main requirement is to fix up the sampling frame, i.e., the list of all sampling units with reference to which relevant data are to be collected. It is the sampling frame, which determines the sampling structure of a survey. A sampling frame is the keynote around which the selection and estimation procedures revolve. The unit of enumeration for collecting data on school education may be village (rural area), town/city (urban area), recognized schools, degree colleges with classes XI and XII, special schools meant for children with severe disabilities in all districts of the country. 2.4 Target Population The target population should be defined in clear and unambiguous terms. The demographic, geographical, administrative and other boundaries of the population must be specified so that there remains no ambiguity regarding coverage of the survey. In case of sample survey, the sampled population (population to be sampled) should coincide with the target population (population about which information is required). The target population for collecting data on school education may be rural area covering all rural habitations and villages, urban areas, schools (recognized as well as unrecognized) imparting general education, degree colleges with classes XI and XII, oriental institutions (Maktabs, Madrasas and Sanskrit Pathshalas), centers/schools under EGS&AIE, pre-primary institutions, special schools meant for children with severe disabilities in all districts of the country. 2.5 Sampling Design In sample survey, sampling design plays a vital role in determining the reliability of final estimates. The size of sample, procedure of selection and estimation of parameters along with the amount of risk involved are some of the important statistical aspects, which should receive careful attention. If a number of sampling designs for taking a sample are available, then the total risk, i.e., the cost and precision, should be considered before making a final selection of the sampling design. 10
4 2.6 Development of Tools Once objectives of the survey have been clearly identified, the next step is to translate these objectives into tools keeping in view the unit of enumeration, target population and proper sampling design. It is to be decided what kind of specific information is needed to satisfy these objectives. To design a good question, it is crucial that all the concepts be clear and simply expressed. While designing a question, it is important to adopt a coding scheme that makes the responses amenable to computerization and further data cleaning and processing. The question designer must think about the processing of responses to questions, and prepare the analysis plan accordingly. In designing the questions, the ideas should be conveyed clearly and the questions should be made easy to comprehend. It has been found useful to try out the questionnaire on many different people on small scale at the time of its development. This practice in large-scale surveys is very popular as pre-test. This nearly always results in improvements in the questionnaire and may reveal other troubles that will be serious on large scale. Hence, the question designer must understand the need to pre-test the questionnaire. For example, the tools developed by the NCERT for the Seventh All India School Education Survey may be referred (NCERT, 2002). 2.7 Organization of Field Work The achievement of aims of a sample survey depends to a large extent on reliable fieldwork. If field work is done honestly, sincerely and according to the instructions laid down and if there is careful supervision of field staff, there remains no doubt about achieving the aims of the survey. It is, therefore, necessary to make provisions for adequate supervisory staff for the inspection of fieldwork (Singh and Chaudhary, 1997). The important steps in organization of fieldwork are as under Training of Survey Personnel It is essential that the personnel involved in survey should be thoroughly trained in locating enumeration units and the methods of collection of required data, before starting the fieldwork. The staff should be trained well, not only in the statistical aspects, but also in the art of eliciting correct information from different sources on school education. In large-scale surveys, a technical guidelines for survey personnel should be prepared covering various aspects needed for execution of the survey. The guidelines may be prepared in regional languages also. It should be made available to survey personnel to maintain uniformity at different levels of field operation. The training of state level officers should be undertaken at the national level. The training of district and sub-district level officers should be conducted at the state and 11
5 district levels, respectively. The national level agencies involved in survey operation should provide necessary support to state level agencies in imparting the training Strategy for Data Collection The planning and execution of a survey is influenced to a large extent by the method of data collection. The decision regarding the choice of method of data collection should be taken after careful examination of the unit of enumeration, design (in case of sample survey), budget and objectives of the survey. A clear-cut mode of data collection should be given as to whether data would be collected by personal interview, mail enquiry, physical measurement etc Data Quality Management The data quality management involves minimization of the errors that may crop up in a survey. The errors involved in collection, processing and analysis of the data in a survey may be classified as (a) sampling error, and (b) non-sampling error. (a) Sampling Error Sampling error arises from estimating a population characteristic by looking at only one portion of the population rather than the entire population. It refers to the difference between the estimate derived from a sample survey and the 'true' value that would result if a census of the whole population was taken under the same conditions. There will be no sampling error in a census because the calculations are based on the entire population. The sampling error can be reduced by increasing the sample size and by choosing appropriate sampling design. There are methods that estimate sampling error for probability sample surveys. The sampling variance is the most commonly used measure to quantify sampling error. It is derived directly from the sampling and estimation methods used in the survey. (b) Non-sampling Error Non-sampling error can be defined as error arising during the course of survey activities other than sampling. Unlike sampling error, it may be present in both sample and census surveys. Non-sampling error can occur because of problems in coverage, response, non-response, data processing, estimation and analysis. Each of these types of errors is explained below. 12
6 Coverage Error An error in coverage occurs when there is an omission, duplication or wrongful inclusion of units in the population or sample. Omissions are referred to as undercoverage, while duplication and wrongful inclusions are called overcoverage. These errors are caused by defects in the survey frame: inaccuracy, incompleteness, duplication, inadequacy and obsolescence. Coverage error may also occur in field procedures (e.g., a survey is conducted, but the interviewer misses several households or schools). Response Error Response error results from data that have been requested, provided, received or recorded incorrectly. The response error may occur because of inefficiencies with the questionnaire, the interviewer, the respondent or the survey process. The respondent may sometimes provide incorrect answers due to faulty recollection or negligence. To correct such type of errors, it is suggested to develop some validation checks that can test consistency of the response among various questions. To achieve this, it is necessary to establish the relationship among various questions. For example, if a question Does the School have Playground Facility is answered No then answer for next question Playground Facility is Exclusively for the School can not be Yes. Such type of checks may be applied on data by manually as well as using computer programs. Non-response Error Non-response error is the result of not having obtained sufficient answers to survey questions. There are two types of non-response errors: complete and partial. To reduce the bias that might result from this kind of errors, care should be taken in designing and testing questionnaires. Appropriate edit and imputation strategies will also help in minimizing this bias. Processing Error Processing error sometimes emerges during the preparation of the final data files. For example, Errors can occur while data are being coded, captured, edited or imputed. 13
7 Coder bias is usually a result of poor training or incomplete instructions, variance in coder performance (i.e., tiredness, illness), data entry errors, or some processing errors are caused by errors in the computer programs. Sometimes, errors are incorrectly identified during the editing phase. Even when errors are discovered, they can be corrected improperly because of poor imputation procedures. Analysis Error Analysis error includes error that occurs when using the wrong analytical tools or when the preliminary results are used instead of the final ones. Errors that occur during the publication of these data results are also considered analysis errors. The survey statistician should be aware of the existence of these errors, and make efforts to control them to bring to minimum. 2.8 Analysis of Data The analysis of data is the most essential part of survey because results of the survey are basis for policy making. Hence, it should be handled carefully. The analysis of data collected in a survey may be broadly classified as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Scrutiny and editing of data Tabulation of data Statistical analysis of data Reporting and conclusions Finally, a report of the findings of survey on school education that is Educational Statistics, suggesting possible action to be under taken, should be prepared. 14
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