BASIC TECHNIQUES IN READING AND WRITING. Part 1: Reading

Transcription

1 BASIC TECHNIQUES IN READING AND WRITING Part 1: Reading This handout lists supplementary reading activities for students. If your student does not grasp a concept as presented in a Laubach skill book, use the strategies below to work on the material in a different way. The strategies that follow emphasize different stages of the reading process, depending on the skill book level of students. The Reading Process Word recognition student recognizes printed words whose meaning he already knows Fluency student can read orally with speed, accuracy, and vocal expression. Readers who are not fluent find it difficult to remember and understand what has been read. Vocabulary student understands previously unfamiliar key words in a text because they have been added to his oral vocabulary. Vocabulary is crucial for getting meaning from text. Comprehension student knows what words mean in context (for example: run a race; run to the store; run in my stocking) Application student s response is appropriate (for example, enters through correct door when two door are labeled enter and exit ); student is able to use what he reads in his own life. Although the strategies presented are not hierarchical, strategies presented for Skill Book 4 cannot be conducted successfully if students have not mastered the concepts associated with Skill Book 1. By the same token, some strategies associated with higher level skill books can be simplified for use with students at lower levels. Tutors are encouraged to review all the strategies presented and to use a variety based on the abilities of individual students. Skill Books 1 and 2 Skill Book 1 students are most likely to need assistance with word recognition, fluency, and vocabulary. Specific word recognition strategies involve phonics, sight words, word patterns, word parts, and context. Students working in Skill Book 2 are most likely to require help with comprehension, including drawing inferences from written materials and summarizing the main ideas in a passage. 1

2 The techniques presented are most applicable for skill book 1 and 2 students but can be used with Skill Books 3 and 4 depending on students abilities. Word Recognition Strategies The related abilities to associate the sounds of English with symbols (letters) and use those symbols (letters) to represent spoken words provide the foundation for successful reading. 1. Help with Phonics The primary objective of reading tutors is to teach phonics the sound of letters and letter combinations (called digraphs) such as /sh/. All English words can be divided into two categories: words with regular spellings (e.g., mash), and words with irregular spellings, called sight words (e.g., laugh). Phonics teaches how to read words with regular spellings, even if the words are made up (for example, zot, brillig). Students must be able to segment sounds in words in order to sound out unfamiliar words and spell. They must also be able to recognize sound units such as th, er, ng. If students have trouble learning phonics, make sure they can accurately hear the sound you are teaching (see Minimal Pairs activity in Handout #8). Activities that help students connect sounds and letters include: Sound cards Sound cards are effective because they are visually simple and focus student attention on one sound and symbol at a time. Cut index cards in half. On each card, print a letter or digraph. Review a few cards at each session, as follows: o To help reading (visual), show a sound card and ask what s the sound? what s the chart word? (knowing the chart word will help the student remember the sound). o To help spelling (auditory), reverse teach by asking what letter says /s/? Nonsense words context is removed, so the student is forced to sound out the word (for example, theg, mup). This is the best test of whether the student knows the sounds of consonants, digraphs, and vowels. Differentiating the five short vowel sounds is a challenge for many beginning ESL readers. Use letter tiles or flash cards to create nonsense words (for example, zam). Leave the first and last letters in place; use a tile or card with different vowels to replace the vowel in the center (for example, zem, zim, zom, zum). Have students read these words to practice the different sounds. 2

3 Slip strips use slip strips to review short vowels, consonant blends, and digraphs (such as /sh/ or /ch/). Boxing letters help make individual sounds clearer to students by drawing boxes around the letter or letter groups that create a single sound: for example, sh a bb y Tracking Tracking helps students differentiate sound sequences. It is best used after introducing short vowels in Skill Book 1, Lesson 4. Lay out a set of sound cards or alphabet tiles in front of students. Then follow a scheme that requires students to pull out the appropriate tile (or sound card) to create different words. All five types of possible changes are used adding, omitting, substituting, shifting, and repeating sounds. Example: o Tutor says Show me /t/. Student should pull out tile/card with t. o Tutor says, Change /t/ to /at/. Student should place tile/card with a in front of the tile with t. (adds sound) o Change /at/ to /an/. (substitutes sound) o This says /an/. Show me /pan/. o Change /pan/ to /pal/. Change /pal/ to /pat/. o Change /pat/ to /tap/. (shifts sounds) o This says tap. Show me /trap/. o Change /trap/ to /rap/. (omits initial sound) o Change /rap/ to /pap/. (repeats sound) Things to consider when using tracking: o Never start with a word. Build one sound at a time. o Don t use long vowels until student learns them in SB3. o Use tracking to help with consonant blends (for example, pan to plan; pay to play). o Reverse roles and have students direct you. 2. Help with Sight Words Because sight words have irregular spellings, students must memorize them instead of sounding them out. Flash cards use index cards to create flash cards that contain a correctly-spelled sight word on the front (for example, laugh) and phonetic spelling on the back (laf). Study process teach your student how to study sight words at home by practicing these five steps in class until they become automatic: o Read the word. Use phonetic spelling to help if necessary. o Study the word. What sound(s) is spelled the same? What is the silent letter? Where does the silent letter come? What sound(s) is spelled differently? o Spell the word aloud. 3

4 o Write the word twice. Say the letters as you write them the second time. o Close your eyes and spell the word aloud (or, cover up the word and write it down). Check to see if you are right. 3. Help with Word Patterns Word patterns help students learn familiar groupings of letters. The primary technique used is Word Families. A word family consists of rhyming words where o all parts of the word sound the same AND o all parts of the word are spelled the same EXCEPT for the first sound o example: tent, bent, sent (but NOT meant) Techniques for teaching word families appear in Different Ways to Do Word Families found in the Tutor Resources section of our website. Word families also help students learn more difficult groupings of letters that appear at the end of words (such as dge, nch, tch, nk, ng). Example: judge, fudge, budge. o It helps to review the same ending using another vowel, for example, hedge, ledge. o Finally, review the grouping by using different vowels: badge, edge, ridge, lodge, smudge. 4. Help with Word Parts Color-coding use colored ink to underline, circle, or otherwise highlight additions to a root word, such as prefixes, suffixes, plural endings, possessive endings, and so forth. Syllables students must learn to read unfamiliar long words one syllable at a time. Each syllable contains a single vowel sound. Have the student scoop under each syllable as he reads it. Word chunks Have the student look for word chunks (smaller words that appear in larger ones, such as exit or slander. Also try this in reverse: ice, lice, slice. 5. Help with Context Students need to be aware of how using context helps in reading words. Say blank When a student comes to a word he doesn t know, have him say blank and keep on reading. Then ask the student to use the surrounding words to help him think of a word that makes sense in that place. Fill in the blank exercise Create sentences or paragraphs for practice. Be sure that surrounding words provide sufficient clues to the correct answer. 4

5 o Good example: The bird has three eggs in her. The student is likely to respond correctly (nest) because this is where eggs are typically found. o Bad example: The bird has eggs in her nest. The student could provide a number (three), a color (blue), or a condition (cracked). The surrounding words do not provide help in figuring out the response. Fluency Strategies Students who are not fluent readers tend to focus their energy on decoding instead of on understanding. Hesitant or inaccurate reading hinders comprehension. For students who have trouble reading smoothly or with expression: 1. Modeling Read a passage and have students listen. 2. Echo Reading Read a sentence, then have students read it. They should mimic your pronunciation, intonation, and rate. 3. Duet Reading You and students read together. The students are likely to be a few seconds behind you. 4. Audio Tapes Tape yourself reading a passage. Students can listen to the tape as they read the same passage. Vocabulary Strategies Vocabulary is crucial for getting meaning from text. Without mastery of the vocabulary words used by a writer, students are unlikely to understand the intended message. 1. Pre-Teach Vocabulary Words Students encounter new vocabulary in a multitude of everyday materials. Ask students to write out words with which they are unfamiliar. Teach these words before asking students to read the text in which those words appear. 2. Language experience Ask students an open-ended question to get started (for example, what is your favorite sport? tell me about your pet). As a student begins to speak, write the words verbatim. It is important to print neatly! When the student has finished speaking (and you have finished writing), read the passage aloud. Then ask the student to read it aloud. 5

6 This technique has multiple effects; it: Establishes the connection between spoken and written words Creates confidence on the part of students Provides appropriate reading material at a student s own speech level Comprehension Strategies Obstacles to understanding written material include lack of background information, unfamiliar vocabulary, graphic elements (such as charts, diagrams, maps, font styles), writing styles or genres, and idioms (for example, catch a bus; students may recognize the words in such a phrase but not understand its meaning). 1. Help with Drawing Inferences Questions increase understanding by getting students to think more deeply about what they read. Start by asking factual questions that require only a yes/no answer (for example, in the children s story, The Three Little Pigs; you might ask Was the first house made of straw? ). Then ask factual questions that require students to use vocabulary words (for example, What was the second house made of? ) Finally, ask simple inferential questions about something that is implied rather than stated (for example, Was the first little pig lazy? ). Such questions should go beyond simple facts. They should help students focus on what the writer implied but did not explicitly state; the student must infer or read between the lines. For example: In Lesson 3, Jimmy gives a lily to Kitty, and Kitty gives her picture to Jimmy. A factual question (What did Jimmy give Kitty?) does not promote critical thinking. An inferential question (Why did Jimmy give Kitty a flower?) encourages students to think beyond what is happening in the story to why it is happening. 2. Help with Summarizing Beginning readers usually have trouble distinguishing between main ideas and supporting details in what they read. To clarify these elements, have students summarize each story in a sentence or two (for example, this is a story about a man who... ). Summarizing is a learned skill, so model the process aloud a few times before asking your students to try it. You may have to remind them that only the most important points should be included. 6

7 Skill Books 3 and 4 Skill Book 3 requires students to interpret the feelings of characters and predict outcomes. Students working in Skill Book 4 should be able to understand figurative language in a story, recognize the author s purpose, and relate stories to their own experience and knowledge. They also should be able to read and understand a variety of practical everyday materials. These students are most likely to need help with comprehension and application. The techniques presented are most applicable for Skill Book 3 and 4 students but can be used with Skill Books 1 and 2 depending on students abilities. Comprehension Strategies It can be argued that the purpose of reading is comprehension. Understanding the meaning of text is essential if students are to obtain information and relate it to their personal experiences and situations. 1. Help with Interpreting Feelings Ask questions that require students to interpret the emotions of characters. For example, Was John happy or sad? Use calendars or magazines to obtain pictures of people in various settings. Show students a picture and ask questions related to the facial expressions or body language depicted. For example, if a picture shows a child who is crying, How does she (the child) feel? or What is she thinking? 2. Help with Predicting Outcomes Directed reading poses a series of questions that help organize a student s thinking and help him become a more active and alert reader. Model this process by thinking aloud or ask your student these questions until they become second nature to him. Before reading, student should ask himself: o What is this going to be about? (use title and picture to help answer.) o What do I already know about this topic? o What is my purpose for reading this? (give student something to find out.) During reading o What do I think the next part will be about? o Was I right or wrong? After reading o What did the reading selection say? (literal meaning) 7

8 o What did I have to figure out? o What else do I know about this topic? 3. Help with Figurative Language Figurative language describes something by comparing it with something else. The comparison is not to be taken literally. The purpose of the comparison is to draw attention to some characteristic by using an interesting image. Although the Laubach materials do not use much figurative language, students may encounter the following types of comparisons in other printed matter: Simile a figure of speech in which things that are different are compared by the use of the words like or as (for example, her eyes were bright as stars). Create a list of similes and have students discuss their meanings. Metaphor a figure of speech that is similar to a simile, but does not use the words like or as to compare (for example, her eyes are stars). Idiom an expression that does not mean literally what it says (for example, you are driving me up the wall). Create a list of idioms and have students discuss their meanings. 4. Help with Author s Purpose There are three main purposes to an author s passage: To inform the author presents facts, not opinions. Examples include textbooks, cookbooks, assembly instructions, package labels. To entertain the author tells a story or describes characters, places, or events. Examples include novels, plays, short stories, jokes, comic strips. To persuade the author presents an opinion and tries to get the reader to agree with it. Examples include advertisements, editorials, letters to the editor. Show students a product label (cleaning supplies and food packages with cooking instructions, such as a pasta box, are good choices) and explain the purpose of informing. Ask students to think of other examples. Repeat this activity at future sessions to illustrate the purposes of entertainment and persuasion. Once students are familiar with the three purposes, show them examples of all three. Ask students to identify the purpose of the different examples. 6. Help with Relating Stories to Personal Experience Students should be able to respond to applied questions (students at Skill Book 1 are exposed to literal questions; at Skill Books 2 and 3, they are exposed to 8

9 inferential questions). Such questions increase understanding by getting students to think more deeply about what they read. Literal questions focus on what a selection actually says. For example, (from the children s story, The Three Little Pigs) what was the first little pig s house made of? Inferential questions focus on what the writer implied but did not state; the student must infer or read between the lines. Example: Was the first little pig wise? Applied questions relate the selection to the reader s own experience. Example: What is your house made of? What would happen to your house in a strong wind? Application Strategy Authentic materials the range of written communication encountered by students every day provide opportunities for students to apply their reading skills to personal circumstances. Help with Everyday Materials Reading ability is enhanced through real-life situations that are immediately applicable. Collect everyday materials, such as want ads, maps, menus, recipes, medicine labels, adult education course schedules, telephone books, and so forth. As lessons in Skill Book 4 address situations in which such materials are depicted, create additional activities using these materials to supplement the lessons. Example: Lesson 9 focuses on reading a map. Bring a county map to class and have students do some or all of the following. Identify the street on which they live Identify the street on which the library (or other location for lessons) is located Trace the route from home to the library Trace the route from the library to home Trace the route from home to other familiar locations (for example, child s school, supermarket, bank). Select a location on the map (for example, different library, shopping mall). Have students figure out the route from home, then from another starting point. Other examples: Food shopping find recurring words in grocery ads (sale, fresh, reduced) and write them on flash cards. Ask students to find the same words in other grocery ads. Have students create their shopping lists. 9

10 Safety use a medicine bottle or household product label. Put important words on flash cards (poison, external, flush). Once students can read the words on the flash cards, have them read the same words on the label. Find the same words on other product labels. Student-generated materials Students often bring to class materials that relate to their lives mail, job applications, letters from their children s school, medical instructions, and so forth. These materials help teach reading because students tend to remember words relating to their personal lives. Part 2: Writing (Composition) Writing has two different meanings. It is defined as (1) forming characters on a surface with an instrument and (2) to be the author of or to compose. The information presented is intended to help students convey thoughts and ideas in written form. Writing strategies must be appropriate for the level at which students are working. Thus, a student at SB2 might not move beyond beginning strategies. By the same token, a student at SB4 might have to start with intermediate strategies if he has never written before. Beginning Writing Skill Books 1 and 2 The writing skills introduced in Skill Book 1 focus primarily on forming characters. Relatively little attention is paid to composition. The writing skills introduced in Skill Book 2 involve copying sentences, filling in missing words in sentences, writing the question form of a statement, and forming new words by adding various endings (for example, -ed, -s, -es). 1. Reinforce writing basics Skill Book 2, Lesson 1 (and all lessons thereafter) emphasize the use of capital letters to begin sentences and correct ending punctuation (period or question mark). Skill Book 2 also introduces other punctuation marks. Reinforce this information in all writing activities. 2. Introduce the concept of composition: a. Ask your student a simple question. As he answers it, neatly print what he says. Have him read his printed answer out loud. This activity demonstrates that writing is simply a spoken thought copied onto paper. 10

11 b. Create a series of flash cards by writing one common word on each card. Some words should be vocabulary words with which students are familiar. Other words should be common verbs and sight words (for example, the, this, and). The student is asked to answer questions by creating sentences with selected words from among the cards. Example: ask What does the girl have? Student creates a sentence such as the girl has a cup. 3. Have student rewrite sentences to change them from present tense to past tense. Example: Today, I want to study. Yesterday,. Students rewrite as I wanted to study. When creating sentences, be sure to use vocabulary words that the students already know. a. Variation 1: Have students change sentences from singular to plural b. Variation 2: Once students can rewrite sentences, have them rewrite simple paragraphs. 4. Guided writing Students in Skill Book 2 should be able to write simple paragraphs. a. Use pictures cut from calendars or magazines. Give students a picture or let them select one. Tell them to write three sentences that describe what they see in the picture. This activity is easier for students as a homework assignment, because they can spend time thinking about what they want to say. b. Ask students to write three or four sentences about a specific topic. You can assign the topic or let students select their own. c. Have students write a longer paragraph (four to six lines) that begins with a topic sentence, supports the topic sentence with details or examples, and ends with a concluding sentence. Explain that a topic sentence always contains two things: a topic (for example, my job) and a position about the topic (for example, is interesting). Intermediate and Advanced Writing Skill Books 3 and 4 The writing skills emphasized in Skill Book 3 are: write sentence answers to questions; write original sentences; write a short summary of a story; write a check; write a short thank you letter; fill in an application form. The activities listed below typically are assigned as homework because students often need time to organize their thoughts and write down what they want to say. 11

12 Writing skills introduced in Skill Book 4 include: writing an original paragraph, writing a notice or an ad, writing an original letter to the editor. Depending on their abilities, students working in Skill Book 3 may be ready for advanced writing activities while students in Skill Book 4 might have to start with intermediate strategies if they have never written before. Intermediate Writing Strategies 1. Guided writing with assigned topic Give students a simple topic accompanied by questions. Ask them to write the answers to the questions. Other guided writing activities are listed for Skill Books 1 and 2 on page Journal Ask students to write sentences that describe something that happens during the week. It is helpful to provide some suggestions; for example, they can write about a trip to the supermarket, a visit with a friend, something their children did, taking care of the family pet, riding the bus. Students should be instructed to bring their journals to class each week. Review and discuss entries but don t correct grammar and spelling at this time. Identify weaknesses and incorporate into future sessions. Students should write one entry before every session. 3. Thank you letter Create a short thank you letter to use as a model. Explain the parts of the letter (date, salutation, body, closing, signature). Once students understand the components, ask them to write a thank you letter to a family member for a gift. You may have to ask students what type of gifts they typically receive so they have a sense of what to thank their relative for. 4. Application forms obtain application forms from a variety of sources (for example, credit-card company, adult education course catalog, library card). Have students fill these out. 5. Story summaries Have students read stories in Student Lines and write short summaries. Because students tend to provide too much detail, limit the summary to three or four sentences. You should demonstrate how to summarize a story so students understand what is expected. Advanced Writing Strategies 1. Compositions Student writing can take four different forms, depending on the purpose of the writing. Depending on a student s specific needs, some or all of these forms might be appropriate. It is not necessary to define the type 12

13 of composition you are asking for; this may confuse your students. Just tell them what you want. a. Informative presents the facts about a situation or event; tells who, what, where, when, how and why. Example: ask students to write a paragraph that describe a an event, such as a wedding, a birthday party, a function at their child s school, a meeting at work b. Explanatory describes how to do something Example: select an activity that students enjoy, such as gardening or cooking. Ask students to write a paragraph that explains how to repot a plant or bake potatoes. c. Comparative compares something to something else Example: ask your student if he prefers summer or winter. Tell him to write a paragraph about why he thinks warm weather is better than cold weather d. Persuasive tries to convince you about something Example: ask your student if he thinks smoking is bad for you or if he thinks exercise is good for you. Tell him to write a paragraph that tells why you should quit smoking (or why you should exercise). Eventually, you may be able to ask students to write four or five sentences about any topic they choose. It may be necessary to suggest general topics (for example, you can write about something you like to do, or someplace you like to go, or something your child does). When reviewing a composition, first read for content. Discuss the ideas presented. After you and your students have discussed their ideas, go over the composition again for punctuation, grammar and spelling. If there are errors in all three areas, focus on one. For example, show students how to correctly punctuate. You may have to deal with punctuation for several sessions. Once students punctuate properly most of the time (there will be lapses), turn your attention to another problem area (for example, spelling). Over time, you will eventually address all the problems. You also are likely to discover that student compositions ramble. Create a paragraph that students can use as a model and explain its three parts: a. Topic sentence should identify the topic (for example, my job ) and take a position on the topic (for example, is interesting ) b. Facts, details, examples to support the position in the topic sentence c. A closing sentence 13

14 Alternatively, rearrange the sentences in a student s paragraph to show placement of the topic sentence, and so forth. 2. Functional writing Bring examples of the various types of writing for students to read. Using those examples, students should be able to create their own writings. Select functional writing exercises that will be meaningful to students. Don t focus on a lost pet poster if students don t own a pet; start with something that relates to their lives. a. For Sale poster b. Lost pet poster c. Notes for school (i) absence due to illness (ii) early dismissal for doctor s appointment d. Classified ad 3. Creative writing It is unlikely that your students will attempt any creative writing. a. Description of a person, place or thing b. Opinion about something c. Short autobiography 14