PAST EXPERIENCE AS COORDINATION ENABLER IN EXTREME ENVIRONMENT: THE CASE OF THE FRENCH AIR FORCE AEROBATIC TEAM

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1 PAST EXPERIENCE AS COORDINATION ENABLER IN EXTREME ENVIRONMENT: THE CASE OF THE FRENCH AIR FORCE AEROBATIC TEAM Cécile Godé Responsable de l équipe de management des organisations de Défense (EMOD) Chercheur au Centre de Recherche de l Armée de l Air (CReA) Chercheur associé au GREDEG UMR 6227 CNRS Université de Nice Sophia-Antipolis cecile.gode@inet.air.defense.gouv.fr ; cecile-gs@wanadoo.fr Tel.: , Fax: Background Over the last decade, several contributions suggest that refining our understanding of intraorganizational coordination requires opening the black box of coordination processes (e.g., Berman et al., 2002 ; Faraj and Xiao, 2006; Klein et al., 2006; Rico et al., 2008; Lechner and Kreutzer, 2010). Indeed, in reckoning coordination as essentially a matter of structure, the dominant perspective of contingency (e.g., March and Simon, 1958; Lawrence and Lorsch, 1967; Galbraith, 1973; Mintzberg, 1978; Gupta et al, 1994; Malone and Crowston, 1994) fails at exploring the micro-level of coordination as well as delivering a comprehensively appreciation of the way individuals handle collaborative tasks in situation. A way to overcome these limitations is to pay a particular attention to practices enacted by actors through their situated and on-going interactions. Viewed as knowing-in-action (Piaget, 1974), practices are dispositions enacted in specific situations (Bourdieu, 1990). Investigating coordination with a practice lens sheds light on the way actors shape coordination through their on-going and situated actions (Orlikowski, 2002) and allows exploring means and resources they articulate to coordinate. Some scholars engaged in addressing such a practice view of intra-organizational coordination take into consideration its social and cognitive influences (e.g., Zohar and Luria, 2003; Faraj and Xioa, 2006; Foss and Lorenzen, 2009). Some of them focus on the role played by communication processes (Weick, 1993, Quinn and Dutton, 2005) when others give attention to learning (Zohar and Luria, 2003; Ron et al., 2006; Rico et al., 2008) and socialization (Berman et al., 2002; Klein et al., 2006). In line with these contributions, it appears challenging to question the influence of an under-explored process of coordination: experience feedback. Experience feedback can be viewed as an exploiting process of prior experiences in order to guide future actions. It aims at sharing best practices and constituting collective memory. In that way, experience feedback refers to the three coordination processes commonly studied by literature, communication, learning and socialization.

2 This paper asks: how does experience feedback contribute to intra-organizational coordination? In line with several prior contributions (e.g., Weick, 1993; Klein et al., 2004; Klein et al., 2006 ; Faraj et Xiao, 2006), this paper examines coordination practices enacted under extreme circumstances. Extreme situations can be defined as management situations (Girin, 1990) which conditions are risky, change readily and sometimes unexpectedly to become uncertain. These situations can be both more or less unexpected probability of occurrence and difficult to anticipate moment of occurrence and specific modalities or practical details (Pichault et al., 2010). Due to paroxysmal effects, exploring the way people exploit experience feedback to coordinate in extreme situations allows revealing some specific practices that could be much more difficult to examine in more classical work situation. The remainder of this extended abstract provides a brief presentation of the methods and case study as well as the main findings that could be developed in the full paper. Context settings and methods To explore the influence of experience feedback on coordination under extreme circumstances, I conducted an extreme single-case study (Yin, 2003; Eisenhardt and Graebner, 2007). I observed the way members of the French Air Force Aerobatic Team (AFAT) exploit prior experiences to perform coordination. They achieve two kinds of missions all over the year: on the one hand, they represent the French Air Force during meetings and, on the other hand, they are engaged in competition at the highest level (world and European levels). In 2009, AFAT obtained the first place to the World Aerobatic Championships and one of its pilots became the world champion. Next year, he confirmed his excellent results during the European Aerobatic Championships. In that sense, AFAT members are engaged both in collaborative (meetings) and competitive (championships) activities. As a result, the main coordination challenge they deals with concerns knowledge and knowhow integration so that each of them contributes to the excellence of meetings as well as individual and collective results in competition. AFAT members cope with extreme situations since the context wherein they fly can change very quickly (e.g., unstable weather, wind speed), uncertainty is high regarding the occurrence of an unexpected event (e.g., volatile collision, mechanical failure) and programs they present involve a high level of physical risk. I organized data gathering over a six-month period, from June to November 2010, in the course of which I visited the AFAT squadron four times. To achieve triangulation (Eisenhardt, 1989), I collected data from multiple sources of information, including individual

3 interviews (with the five pilots of the team, the coach and two mechanics), field observations (training flights, debriefings), and archival records (such as external and internal video recordings, web site documentations). Furthermore, I am scheduled to fly with AFAT at the beginning of the year, in order to feel and share some of the sensations pilots described to me during interviews. Finally, my research department being located in the same air force base than the AFAT, I had many opportunities to collect information through informal conversations, especially with the pilots. These data collection methods allowed me to gather an important amount of multifaceted data and to refine my understanding of the way AFAT members are engaged in coordination in their daily activities. As Langley (1999) stated, I combined three different analysis strategies: narrative, synthetic and grounded theory strategies. I transcribed data collected and structured my observations and field notes. From that raw material, my analysis of the interviews, observations and field notes was conducted using N-Vivo7 software. During the whole coding process, I followed an iterative and comparative approach in order to identify regularities and foster the emergence of my categories. Main findings Focusing on the ways actors exploit prior experiences to perform their tasks, case study findings provide a comprehensive understanding of intra-organizational coordination in extreme situations. In a highly changing environment, where the probability of occurrence of unpredictable events is high, actors need appropriated and up-dated knowledge to achieve their tasks. In that way, they first use common communication processes mainly based on standardized language and codes. Such means foster a mutual understanding of individual activities and promote collective and social identity at the team level. Second, prior experiences exploitation is based on right-after-action reviews which can be viewed as a multi-layered process of individual reflexivity and retrospective sense-building. Finally, socialization dynamics, in favouring experience sharing through informal modes, are critical in supporting reflexivity and retrospective sense-building Our results emphasize the key influence of cognitive and social processes on coordination. In particular, they suggest that combination of communication, learning and socialization processes, which characterizes experience feedback, enhances team ability to provide consensual interpretation of collaborative/competitive situations they deal with (Weick, 1979; Weick, 1993, Weick 1995). Although team members do not necessarily share same values or same aspirations, experience feedback helps them to acquire collective attention and mindfulness which lead them to minimize errors, remain vigilant and respond effectively to extreme circumstances they daily handle. In that view, experience feedback is an intraorganizational enabler in favouring individual knowledge and know-how integration at the collective level.

4 References quoted in the extended abstract Berman, S.L., Down, J. and Hill, C.W. (2002), Tacit Knowledge as a Source of Competitive Advantage in the National Basketball Association, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 45, n 1, pp Bourdieu, P. (1990), The Logic of Practice, Stanford University Press, Stanford. Eisenhardt, K. (1989), Building Theories from Case Study Research, Academy of Management Review, vol. 14, n 4, pp Eisenhardt, K. and Graebner, M. (2007), Theory Building From Cases: Opportunities And Challenges, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 50, n 1, pp Faraj, S. and Xiao, Y. (2006), Coordination in Fast-Response Organizations, Management Science, vol. 52, n 8, pp Foss, N. and Lorenzen, M. (2009), Towards an Understanding of Cognitive Coordination: Theoretical Development and Empirical Illustrations, Organization Studies, vol. 30, pp. 11, Galbraith, J. (1973), Designing Complex Organizations, Reading: Addison-Wesley. Gittell, J. (2002), Coordinating Mechanisms in Care Providing Groups: Relational Coordination as a Mediator and Input Uncertainty as a Moderator of Performance Effects, Management Science, vol. 48, n 11, pp Gupta, P., Dirsmith, M. and Fogarty, T. (1994), Coordination and Control in a Government Agency: Contingency and Institutional Theory Perspectives on GAO Audits, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 39, n 2, pp Keller, R. (1994), Technology-Information Processing Fit and the Performance of R&D Project Group: A Test of Contingency Theory, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 37, n 1, pp Klein, G., Feltovich, P.J., Bradshaw, J.M. and Woods D.D. (2004), Common Ground and Coordination in Joint Activity, in Rouse, W.R. and Boff, K.B. (eds.), Organizational simulation. John Wiley, New York, pp Klein, C., Ziegert, J., Knight, A. and Xiao, Y. (2006), Dynamic Delegation: Shared, Hierarchical and Deindividualized Leadership in Extreme Action Teams, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 51, pp Langley A. (1999), Strategies for Theorizing from Process Data, Academy of Management Review, vol. 24, n 4, pp Lawrence, P. and Lorsch, J. (1967), Differentiation and Integration in Complex Organizations, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 12, pp Lechner, C. and Kreutzer, M. (2010), Coordinating Growth Initiatives in Multi-Units Firms, Long Range Planning, vol. 43, pp Malone, T. and Crowston, K. (1994), The Interdisciplinary Theory of Coordination, ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 26, n 1, p

5 March, J. and Simon, H. (1958), Organizations. John Wiley and Sons, New-York. Mintzberg, H. (1978), The Structuring of Organizations: A Synthesis of the Research, Prentice-Hall Inc. Orlikowski, W. (2002), Knowing in Practice: Enacting a Collective Capability in Distributed Organizing, Organization Science, vol. 13, n 3, pp Piaget, J. (1974), La prise de conscience. Presses Universitaires de France, Paris. Pichault, F., Bouty, I., Drucker-Godard, C., Nizet, J., Godé-Sanchez, C. and Lièvre, P. (2010), Coordination Practices in Extreme Situations: Case Studies, Analytical framework and Methodological Stakes, 26 th EGOS Colloquium, July 2-4, Lisbon, Portugal. Quinn R. and Dutton J. (2005), Coordination as Energy-in-Conversation, Academy of Management Review, vol. 30, n 1, pp

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