Table of Contents. Prologue... 3

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1 Table of Contents Prologue... 3 Unit 1 Theories and Approaches... 3 Approaches to Language Teaching... 4 The Role of Grammar in Language Teaching... 7 Which methodology is best?... 8 Activities Unit Unit 2 The Role of the Learner and the Teacher Introduction The Learners Role of the Learners Learner Styles Teachers Roles of the Teacher Final Note Activities Unit Unit 3 Syllabi, Curriculum and Resources Introduction Curriculum Syllabus and Syllabus Design Types of Syllabi Choosing Course Books Other Resources Activities Unit Unit 4 Lesson Planning Introduction Pre-planning The Lesson Plan Making a Plan Using Lesson Plans Pacing Final Note Activities Unit Unit 5 Classroom Management and Grouping Introduction Classroom Management: Adults Grouping Activities Unit

2 Unit 6 Speaking and Pronunciation Skills Introduction Speaking Features of the Language Mental and Social Processing Classroom Speaking Activities Role of the Teacher Pronunciation The Phonemic Alphabet When to Teach Pronunciation Examples of Pronunciation Teaching Connected Speech Activities Unit Unit 7 Listening Skills Introduction Considerations for Listening Exercises Listening Materials Listening Activities Final Notes Activities Unit Unit 8 Reading and Writing Skills Introduction Motivation Materials for Reading and Writing Reading and Writing in the Classroom How to work with reading and writing Final Note Activities Unit Unit 9 Correction, Feedback and Assessment Introduction Assessment Testing Final Note Activities Unit Unit 10 A Sample Lesson Introduction Upper-Intermediate Grammar Lesson Plan Theoretical Setting for the Lesson (Rationale) The Grammar Focus Activities Unit PLEASE NOTE: This course is designed for online completion. It is a great idea, however, to print and keep it for further reference (as you have already done!). Keep in mind that at the end of each unit there are activities to be completed online, which help you check your understanding of the contents. These activities are included within this printable version. We recommend you answer the questions on a separate piece of paper and submit your answers, opinions, etc. when you go online. You MUST complete the online activities, otherwise you will not be able to move forward and sit the exam. The exam cannot be printed.

3 Prologue You are about to begin a very unusual course one that is both traditional and unorthodox in its approach. This course focuses on both the theory of second language acquisition and the subjective experiences of teachers in this field. Objective theory and subjective experience are included because one without the other presents an incomplete picture of a classroom environment. Therefore, the course will outline both the theoretical essence of the work we do, as well as the decisions we make in doing it. Language is foremost about voice. The notion of voice can be taken in the literal sense of speaking or in the more symbolic sense of giving voice to one s being in the world of having power in the world through the exercise of voice. All of us at Teach International believe strongly in our roles as language teachers, understanding that our role is to teach the English language in such a way that the learner has confidence in their power of voice. In this manner, our learners are participants in the ongoing creation and expression of their world. This belief results in radically different ways of teaching language. The purpose of this course is to provide suggestions for those who are preparing themselves to teach English to adults. It provides an alternative approach to understanding what we do and why we do it. So let s get started 3

4 Introduction In this unit we explore a few approaches to teaching language that have been developed over the years. One very popular approach to teaching language is called the transmission theory of language and it goes like this: the sender constructs and sends a message and hopefully the receiver gets the same message. For that to happen, both parties have to have common understandings of the bits and pieces language is made of the grammar, the vocabulary, and in oral communication, the pronunciation system. While you will not find this theory taught anymore, you will find that some ESL teachers still uphold this way of teaching. However, language is more than a system of communication structure; it is also the medium of human experience. It is in language that we learn who we are in relation to the world around us; it is in language that we create ourselves. Understanding that language is the medium of experience puts me in a position of beginning to understand that while I may be the expert in this language at this place and time, the learner is the expert in their life. If I am going to figure out how this learner learns, I had better listen more than I speak, and watch more than I perform. In being self reflective, we need to ask ourselves if our job is to reproduce ourselves or to enable individuals to be the best they can be. As English language teachers, we work across cultures, and it is therefore important to be clear about the values that are implicit in our teaching. Take the notion of time. It is important to teach our students that Westerners consider punctuality as respect for others and that we consider these to be major values; however, it is best to share that information rather than to impose it upon our students by humiliating them when they come back to class late. We cannot assume that our values are the yardstick by which we measure the values of others. We must remember that patience and understanding are critical elements of how successful we will be as teachers. Approaches to Language Teaching We are now going to examine some of the more popular approaches to teaching language. 1. Audiolingualism Audiolingualism traces its roots to the behaviourist school of thought that stresses the Stimulus Response Reward model. The theory behind this methodology is that positive reinforcement produces successful learners and engenders good learning habits. It relies on drill work to form these habits and uses consecutive substitution to increase the student s language. The following example illustrates a typical audiolingual drill: Teacher: Students: Teacher: Students: Teacher: Students: Teacher: Students: Etc. There s a book on the desk... repeat There s a book on the desk pen There s a pen on the desk apple There s an apple on the desk on the table There s an apple on the table Although this style of repetition would seem to be an effective way of remembering language, it does have its drawbacks. First, the language is de-contextualised and does not carry any communicative function, other than 4

5 being a statement of fact. Second, by focusing on correctness in repetition, students are not allowed to make mistakes and learn from them, which many theorists believe to be a valuable aspect of any learning program. Despite the criticisms, drill work has remained a popular procedure and in measured amounts, still proves valuable. 2. PPP Presentation, Practice and Production/Performance This is a British-based teaching technique that developed out of Audiolingualism and is normally referred to as PPP. With PPP, the teacher introduces a situation that contextualises the language he or she wishes to teach. The specific language is then presented (the grammatical target structure). The students practise the language using choral drills, chain drills and cue-response drills. The similarity to Audiolingualism can be seen here in the drill work, but the difference lies in the contextualising of the language being taught it has more meaning for the learner than a rigid substitution drill. In the production section, students make their own sentences using the target structure. During the 1990s, the PPP approach came under attack from learner-centred theorists and humanists, who claimed that it was still too top-down and teacher-centred. Another criticism is that it is too linear a technique. Students do not necessarily go from no knowledge, to restricted sentences, to immediate, creative production. Human learning is much more random. Regardless of its critics, it is still widely used as the default model for the teaching of new grammar and language. 3. ARC This model was put forth by James Scrivener as an alternative to PPP, and it stands for Authentic use, Restricted use and Clarification and focus. Scrivener feels that all language used in an ESL/EFL classroom falls into one of these three categories; therefore, a communicative activity demonstrates authentic use; drill work, jazz chants, dialogues or guided writing provide restricted use; and grammar examples, error correction and repetition illustrate focus and clarification language. With the introduction of these new terms, Scrivener was able to expand the old PPP model with combinations of the new A, R, and C language categories. Different lessons would follow different patterns; a typical lesson would be CRA, whereas another could be CACACR. The ARC terminologies provide a tool to support the many ways in which teachers can work. 4. ESA ESA is yet another alternative to PPP that has been put into practice in the last two decades. The acronym stands for: Engage, Study and Activate Let s have a look at each component: Engage unless students are motivated and willing to learn, their learning experience will be less effective. Study the thoughtful process whereby a student focuses on the construction of a piece of language, be it transitive verbs, how to construct a poem or the synonyms for a particular word. Activate the time spent putting the language to use. This encompasses all communicative activities that engage the students learning games, puzzles, pair and group work, recitation, and the like. Reading and listening exercises also come under this heading, as students are engaged for their own benefit and general understanding. 5. The Communicative Approach The Communicative Approach is also referred to as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and encompasses a set of beliefs that include a fundamental shift in emphasis on how to teach, and what aspects of the language to teach. 5

6 The what to teach stresses function over form and takes the approach that the significance of language functions takes precedence over grammar and vocabulary. The underlying principle is to train students to use a variety of language functions in a variety of contexts. The how to teach aspect of the Communicative Approach closely relates to the idea that language learning will take care of itself and that meaningful and sustained exposure to the language and opportunity to use it will provide the venue for student development and skill acquisition. Activities in the Communicative Approach generally involve students in meaningful language situations, wherein successful achievement of the task they are performing takes precedence over accuracy. Role-play and other speech act activities are very popular in communicative classrooms, where students simulate real life situations. If we compare communicative with non-communicative activities, we see: Non-communicative Activities no desire for communication no communicative purpose form not content one language structure teacher-centred material-centred Communicative Activities a desire to communicate a purpose to communicate content not form a variety of language less teacher intervention less materials control The Communicative Approach and Communicative Language Teaching have become umbrella terms used to describe teaching and learning that aims to improve a student s ability to communicate in authentic contexts, in contrast to teaching that is aimed at learning pieces of language for language s sake, at the expense of context and meaningful use; therefore, it is difficult to outline with exactitude a definitive communicative approach. We can say with certainty, however, that communicative activities are a vital part of a teacher s toolkit. The main criticism of the Communicative Approach and Communicative Language Teaching is that in promoting a pedagogy that focuses on group and pair work with little teacher intervention, in favouring communicative speech acts over explicit grammar, it trades off accuracy in the pursuit of fluency. Despite these criticisms, the Communicative Method is regarded as a highly successful approach to language learning the world over. To summarise, with the Communicative Approach: - The goal of language learning is communicative competence - Learners learn a language through using it to communicate - Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities - Fluency and accuracy are both important elements of communication - Communication involves the integration of all four skills - Learning is a gradual and uneven process 6. Task-based Learning Task-based learning was developed in India by N Prabhu, whose conviction was that students learnt just as effectively when not thinking about a linguistic problem as they did when concentrating on a particular form (1987). It is seen as a derivative of the Communicative Approach. In this approach, students are given pre-task activities where questions need to be answered and vocabulary checked, and then proceed onto problem-solving using the acquired information. When the task has been completed the teacher discusses the language and makes corrections and adjustments. In the pre-task, the teacher discusses the topic with the students and introduces key words and vocabulary that helps them understand the task they are about to do. During the next step, the students undertake the activity in pairs or groups while the teacher monitors without intervention. Students plan how they are going to report back to the class what they have done and how they have done it, and then they do the reporting. In the third section, language focus, the students examine and discuss particular aspects of the activity, usually focusing on a target structure that the activity has centred around. In a task-based learning model, there is less emphasis on language study than on actual engagement with the activities and tasks. It is a move away from traditional teacher roles with the teacher intervening less than in a teacher-centred model. 6

7 Critics of this model are concerned with its applicability to lower level students, as it takes a more concerted effort by the teacher to present tasks suitable for and accessible to beginner students. Other critics suggest that this approach is fine when used in conjunction with other teaching approaches, but that to stand on its own as a complete pedagogical approach is to lean too heavily on tasks as the basis for learning. To focus almost solely on tasks is to promote problem-solving speech acts and language at the expense of other socio-linguistic forms needed in day-to-day communication. Despite the criticism, tasks are highly regarded as a successful teaching resource in the communicative classroom. The Role of Grammar in Language Teaching During the 1970s, language educators were beginning to question the role of grammar in language teaching. Common approaches to teaching grammar and the design of textbooks reflected a view that saw the sentence and sentence structure as forming the building blocks of language, language learning and language use (McCarthy, 2001). The goal of language teaching was to impart how sentences are used to create kinds of meaning, to have the students master the rules for forming sentences from low levels and to practise using them as the foundation for written and spoken communication. Grammar was the primary focus of teaching techniques. Correct language use was achieved through using drills and controlled speaking and writing exercises that hoped to reduce opportunities for errors. Controlled practice was viewed as the key to learning. In the early 1970s, Noam Chomsky s theory of transformational grammar also had a tremendous impact on language teaching so that educators sought to teach linguistic competence to their students. Linguistic competence implies that the speaker is competent in the structure of the language its rules, grammar and applications. Throughout the late seventies and the early eighties, focus on the sentence as the key language component for second language learners shifted to that of language in context and communicative competence, incorporating the functional approach to the study of language. Transformational grammar was replaced by functional grammar. Acquisition is the term for the unconscious process whereby a learner develops language as the result of real communication and exposure to relevant language and learning. With this new understanding of how students learn more effectively, a reassessment of the role of grammar was undertaken, and proposals emerged for a combination of implicit (through context) and explicit (learning of rules) approaches to teaching grammar. The shift toward a more communicative approach to replace grammar-based teaching also resulted in a succession of syllabi that emphasised both accuracy and fluency as goals for learning and teaching. When we outline the differences between the linguistic competence focused classroom and the communicatively focused classroom we see: Linguistic competence: Focus on the formation of correct examples by learner Activities produce language as proof of learning Activities elicit a scripted, monitored speech style Reflects a controlled learner performance Practises language out of context Practises small samples of language Does not require authentic communication Communicative competence: Reflects natural language use Calls on implicit knowledge of learner Elicits individual speech style Activities require the use of improvisation, paraphrasing, amending Allows student to select the language they use Requires real communication The introduction of communicatively-based methodology and activities did not resolve the problem of what to do with grammar. The assurance by theorists that the communicative approach would guarantee students expertise in both linguistic and communicative competence did not always happen. Programs early on produced speakers with extensive oral communication skills but poor command of grammar. To address this, it was decided among 7

8 educators that more notice and attention be paid to (consciously) make the students aware of their grammar acquisition as it occurred and form and function were introduced into teaching practices and activities. A further issue that concerns educators is the affective realm how students feel about themselves in response to their learning experiences. This is particularly important when dealing with adult learners. The well-known psychologist Abraham Maslow suggests that self-esteem is a necessary need that must be met before cognitive needs can be engaged (1987). This idea suggests that the learner s state of mind, how they feel about themselves and how they respond to their learning, is central to success or failure in the process of language learning. The theoretical approach that takes states of mind and the psychology of the student as its central focus is called the humanist approach and has influenced the ESL/EFL discipline in its curriculum and the language introduced. Educators who take a humanist approach claim that the student s feelings are equally important as their mental abilities. If students feel hostile toward the material they are unlikely to succeed. To counteract possible feelings of alienation toward the language, a humanist approach is called for, in which the students receive comprehensible input in a relaxed, unthreatening, and positive atmosphere. If students are relaxed, they are likely to do well and their affective filter is lowered. It is true that we want to create a supportive and positive learning environment for our students, but with an equal balance on their cognitive development. We are always concerned about maintaining the integrity of the students, their self-esteem notwithstanding, while providing them with a relevant and comprehensive academic program. Which methodology is best? Now that we have talked about approaches and methods, you may be unsure of which to adopt. We will now look at the cultural implications of these methods and come to some conclusions about which method is best for our students and us. Methods and Culture It is common for educational cultures to come into conflict with one another: to witness a mishmash of teacher intention and learner interpretation. This often happens when communicative teachers arrive with a view to facilitating in communicative activities and try to impose this view onto their students in cultures where students expect the teacher to behave in a more authoritative way (Ellis, 1996). Alistair Pennycook, a well-known second language theorist, suggests that we have to see English language teaching situated just as much in the realm of popular culture as in the realm of linguistics (1998). Our attitudes to the language, our motivation for teaching and our beliefs about how we should educate one another, all reflect our cultural biases. Where expectations and beliefs differ, the teaching-learning experience can become problematic. Interestingly, when things go wrong, it is usually the students who are looked at negatively. It is far too easy to think that our own ideas as to what constitutes good learning are universal, and forget the cultural specificity (Thorpe, 1991). The fact is that many of the approaches and methods discussed so far are based on Western notions of good learning : we expect active participation in class, we encourage students to speak even when unsure of the language, we sometimes ask students to talk about themselves in a potentially revealing way, we tell them they should take charge of their learning, and we say that the teacher is a helper rather than a source of knowledge and authority. Many of these characteristics fly in the face of non-western understandings of education. The situation is no easier from a student perspective. For many, being subjected to methods they find uncomfortable and for which they are unprepared can be difficult. In 1998 an Argentinean teacher, Pablo Toledo, posted a message on a discussion board on the Internet. He complained about teachers who try affective learning and humanistic teaching falling flat on their faces in high schools where the students are not interested in sharing and who only want good grades. He argues for a new methodology to suit different realities, since his experience in less privileged areas is not that of most teachers. He was not criticising the ideas themselves, just that they are insufficient for the problems he was encountering. These are some of the realities that methodology ignores. When teachers blindly follow a particular approach or method in the face of student incomprehension, we get conflict. 8

9 Teaching and learning is a contract between two parties the student and the teacher and they both need to understand and agree to the terms. It is not a one-sided affair. Teachers need to understand student motivations and expectations just as they are sure of their own. Sometimes, compromises need to be made between the two parties. Often, it means initiating change gradually, rather than all at once. Making Choices It is difficult to come to any conclusion about which approaches and methods are most appropriate for our own situation. There is still much discussion within the English language community about how languages are learnt and the best way to achieve this. However, we can come to certain conclusions: Exposure to the Language students need constant exposure to the language to acquire it. Input students need comprehensible input combined with language study. Communicative and Task-based Activities students need opportunities for real learning, through communicative activities. The Affective Variable any affective barriers need to be lowered for effective learning to take place. Discovery where appropriate, students should be encouraged to discover things for themselves. Grammar showing how words combine and behave semantically and grammatically is important in language learning. Methodology & Culture methodologies are rooted in popular culture and, as such, need to be questioned in different cultural contexts. Practices should be constantly evaluated to see if they are working, and if not, why. If we, and our students, monitor our classes and adjust where necessary, there is a good chance that what we use will be to the best advantage for the learners. Current approaches, including the Communicative Approach, lean toward language learning as a process, with the focus on the process, rather than on a restricted methodology. As language teachers in the last few decades moved away from narrowly focused methods and the search for a singular perfect method began, attention shifted to how teachers could develop and explore their own teaching through reflection and collaboration. Inevitably, the success or failure of the ESL learning process depends on the quality of the relationships within any particular classroom: teacher to individual learner, teacher to learners as a group and learner to learner. Relationships among teachers are equally important and, in your own experiences teaching English, you will learn the importance of developing a teaching philosophy and style that works for you. It is best not to copy one particular method or theory, but to stay receptive to ideas and approaches while trying to meet the needs of your students. It s an exciting process, and you will learn so much from others! Activities Unit 1 Remember! You can complete these activities on paper, but you MUST submit your answers online. Read the following brief descriptions and match them to the most appropriate method: 1. This method introduces language in context as well as using drill work. Audiolingualism PPP Communicative Approach Task-Based Learning 2. An approach that focuses on function over form. Students learn to use language in context. Audiolingualism PPP Communicative Approach Task-Based Learning 3. This method relies on lots of drill work to create habits in students. Audiolingualism PPP Communicative Approach Task-Based Learning 4. This method focuses more on engaging students with activities and tasks and less emphasis on language study. There is also less teacher intervention. 9

10 Audiolingualism PPP Communicative Approach Task-Based Learning Discussion Think about the following questions: Which of the approaches explored do you think would suit a conversational lesson? How about an academic English lesson? If you have studied another language, can you recognise what approach was used? Post your ideas, a question, or a reply on the Forum Unit To post your answers on the forums, for this and the remaining units, you must log in to the Student Centre, and then into the forums using your Teach International username and password. Search the Net Search the net. Try to find more information on these approaches or other approaches for language teaching. Use the Google search engine and try the following search terms: theories language, approaches language teaching and any others you may think of. (If you are not sure how to use search engines, try our Internet Searches Tutorial in the SUPPORT section of the Student Centre) Post your findings on the Forum Unit including the website where you found them. Further Reading The following is a short list of print resources on the topics covered in this unit: Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Jack C Richards and Theodore S Rodgers. Cambridge University Press, Foreign and Second Language Learning, William Littlewood. Cambridge University Press. Grammar Practice Activities. A practical guide for teachers, Penny Ur. Cambridge University Press, Sixteenth printing, For web resources, go to the online unit. 10

11 Introduction In this unit we look at the role of both the learner and the teacher. Some of you will go into the classroom with a curriculum, materials and the benefit of some classroom experience, while others may go in ready to learn on the spot. Whichever situation you are in, beginning to get to know your students as human beings is the first step. My name is What is your name?, I am Australian/a New Zealander, Where are you from?, I speak English, What languages do you speak?. In doing this, you are not just teaching the learners questions and answers, you are also establishing a relationship of trust and mutual liking that will enable them to get to know you all of which will happen in English. Learning through the language rather than the language itself allows the students to enjoy themselves, engage in activities, and forget to be nervous and to learn in spite of themselves. The Learners Education of the Learners The amount of formal education a learner has had and the degree to which the learner has experienced success in that learning may be the two most important factors a teacher must understand in planning a curriculum. If your students are well-educated and confident in their language learning capabilities, it will make your role as a teacher that much easier. Many language students have come from highly formalised learning environments in which English concepts were taught, analysed and practised in highly structured ways. Such students will have a good understanding of grammar but may not be able to speak the language at all. They will probably respond to systematic instructions but may not be interested in activities or group work. In situations such as these, it may be in the teacher s best interest to draw upon those students successful learning experiences and give them what they are accustomed to: grammar quizzes, dictations and spelling bees. It is important to remember to acknowledge the needs of the students to set them up for success. If, on the other hand, the learners have little formal education, they may be overwhelmed by the above approach, so be as open with them as possible and try less paper-based activities to encourage the learning process. Gender of the Learners Depending on the context, gender may be a contributing factor to learning. Some students are unaccustomed to being in mixed groups, and come from a culture where women and men are not treated equally. In some instances, women-only classes may be the solution to women who are reluctant to speak because of gendered expectations or extenuating circumstances. If you have a mixed class in which some men try to dominate the discussion, answer all the questions and demand all of your attention, you will have to mediate to ensure that all students have equal opportunity. Encourage the students to take responsibility for their own learning and be patient with those who find it more difficult to speak out. Gender may also be a factor in husband wife combinations. It is not uncommon for one partner to dominate while the other follows, or for one to have had more exposure to the language. Explain to them privately that you would like both of them to enjoy success and you feel that for the purposes of their learning, they should be separate in the classroom. Age of the Learners The age of our students is a major factor in how we make decisions about what and how to teach. People of different ages have different motivations, needs, skill levels and cognition. There are also commonly held beliefs about age. Many people say that children learn languages more quickly and more easily than adults. Another 11

12 belief is that adolescents are unmotivated, full of attitude and uncooperative, and therefore make poor language learners, and there is the common belief that says adults have so many barriers to learning (because of the ageing process and past experience) that they rarely exhibit successful learning. There is some truth in all of these statements, but they can also be misleading since, like all stereotypes, they suggest that everyone is the same. They ignore evidence that flatly contradicts the assumptions and they also ignore different educational cultures that have very different expectations about teacher and learner behaviour. Personality of the Learners The attitudes of individuals toward their learning, the maturity and social skills they bring to their interactions with the group, and the self-confidence they possess all affect the outcomes in the classroom. As a teacher, try to understand what it is your students are trying to gain from their behaviour. Respond not to the behaviour but to your understanding of where it is coming from. Because we are all different, some learners will shine in one area and others will not. This is one reason it is important to vary your classroom activities. It is very healthy for a group s dynamics to provide an opportunity for everyone to achieve in some way or another. When the learners have one another s respect, they will be more likely to work together as a group with mutual trust and to take mutual responsibility for the learning of each member of the group. Culture and Language Culture speaks through language and language lives out of and reproduces culture. This inextricable bond will influence the classroom. It is important for the ESL teacher to investigate cultural modes of learning. In some cultures students don t feel embarrassed or ashamed if they make a mistake when answering a question, whereas in others, they feel shame and don t want to lose face. In addition, when the questioning begins in an adult context, the teacher is supposed to ask questions respecting the order of authority of the learners (in cultures where there is one). In some Asian cultures, the oldest man would be first and on down to the younger men, and then, one could ask questions of the women in the class. This will not always happen in classrooms where Asian students are present; however, these are the cultural norms that need to be researched beforehand. Usually, other teachers are the best source of information regarding these issues. A further example, which teachers often find themselves dealing with early on, is that of names. It is common for those of us raised in the West to ask to be called by our first names. Some adult students overseas will ask to be called by their marital status designation and their family name. A compromise is often reached with the students addressing the teacher with a preface nomination of teacher or professor and their first name. Honorifics (i.e. a title, phrase, or grammatical form conveying respect, used especially when addressing a social superior) are very important in other parts of the world and that of educator is no exception. What is important in dealing with cultural difference is that you, as the teacher, negotiate, not impose. The imposition of anything is disrespectful. Disrespect destroys self-esteem, which is of singular importance in learning a language a process in which the learner inevitably experiences episodes of failure, which cannot be taken in stride unless they are balanced with a healthy self-image. Learners will most often want to do what the teacher is comfortable with, knowing that they are there to learn the language and some of the culture as well. The most obvious difficulty of a monolingual classroom is the ease students feel in speaking their language with one another. While it can help to have learners who can assist one another with a difficult language, it can be frustrating if learners lack the self-discipline and insight to see the value of persisting in English-only classroom environments. Make it clear from the beginning that speaking their language during English class is not acceptable; moreover, it does not help them learn English. Role of the Learners In the last thirty years, students have come to play a more significant role in their own learning process. Until the 1970s, linguists and educators underestimated the contribution of the learner. We assumed that all learners had similar reasons for wanting to learn English and similar learning styles. During the fifties, sixties and early seventies it was assumed that a good language teacher was one who controlled the learner and led them through the learning process, step-by-detailed-step. In the mid 1970s, however, interest in the role of the learner increased and several significant areas of study emerged. 12

13 Motivation One area of investigation that emerged during the 1970s was the role of motivation in language learning. Several kinds were identified. Instrumental motivation wanting to learn the language for practical benefits Integrative motivation wanting to learn a language to communicate and interact in the target community Intrinsic motivation enjoyment of learning a language for the sake of learning Extrinsic motivation pressured externally; i.e. from parents, societal expectations, academic or business requirements Depending on the combination of motivational factors, each learner came to the language-learning environment in a unique manner, therefore underlining the importance of individual difference among learners. Other factors, including age, gender and aptitude, also play a significant role in learning, and with the combination of motivational factors, the need to find ways of creating optimal learning conditions was investigated. Individualisation A further focus on that of individual difference among learners arose from discussions centring on types of motivation. Individualised approaches to language teaching are based upon the following assumptions: People learn in different ways Learners have different objectives and goals in their language learning People can and do learn from a variety of sources Individualisation, or individual-focused learning, includes one-to-one teaching, self-directed learning and multisourced learning, and stresses the importance of learner autonomy and responsibility, all of which focus on the learner as an individual and promote learner initiative and respect for differences. By the 1980s, the term individualisation had been replaced by learner-centredness, which refers to the notion that attention to the nature of each learner should be the central focus of language teaching, including planning, teaching and evaluation. Characteristics of the learner-centeredness approach encompass: Recognition of learners needs, goals, and wishes Recognition of learners views on teaching and the nature of the classroom Recognition of learners learning styles and learning preferences Recognition of learners prior knowledge With this approach to language teaching, course design and teaching become a negotiated process beginning with needs analysis, since needs, expectations and motivations of each group of students will surely vary. Learner Styles How learners learn has been a major preoccupation for educational researchers. For teachers, the question remains, How can we tailor our teaching to match the personalities and learning styles of our students? Keith Willing (1988) produced the following descriptions of learning styles of his Australian students: Convergers: these are students who are by nature solitary, prefer to avoid groups, and are independent and confident in their own abilities. Most importantly, they are analytic and can impose their own structures on learning. They tend to be cool and pragmatic. Conformists: these are students who prefer to emphasise learning about language over learning to use it. They tend to be dependent on those in authority and are perfectly happy to work in non-communicative classrooms, doing what they are told. A classroom of conformists is one which prefers to see well-organised teachers. 13

14 Concrete Learners: though they are like conformists, they also enjoy the social aspects of learning and like to learn from direct experience. They are interested in language use and language as communication rather than language as a system. They enjoy games and group work in class. Communicative Learners: these are language-use oriented. They are comfortable out of class and show a degree of confidence and a willingness to take risks which their colleagues may lack. They are much more interested in social interaction with other speakers of the language than they are with analysis of how the language works. They are perfectly happy to operate without the guidance of a teacher. In whatever manner we choose to think about and categorise our students, it is vital that we understand that there are unique individuals in our classes and that our prime responsibility is to meet their needs. We need to balance the interests of individual students against what is good for the whole group and to be aware of personality and learning style when grouping and pairing students. We need to be aware when certain students need more attention than others, and to be aware of who needs specific demonstration and practice. It is not possible to cater to every preference of each student all the time, yet over time the attention and recognition we give to learning styles will ensure that we are providing the optimal environment for our students. Teachers In the chapter Describing Teachers, Jeremy Harmer (2001) reminds us that teachers describe themselves metaphorically in many ways, sometimes saying we are like actors because we are always on stage ; we are like conductors because we always direct conversation and set the pace and tone ; and others describe themselves as gardeners because we plant the seeds and then watch them grow. Alternatively, the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English includes the following definition under the word teach : to show somebody how to do something or to change somebody s ideas. According to the Cambridge Dictionary, teaching means to give (someone) knowledge or to instruct or train (someone). The two schools of thought illustrated in the above definitions can also be seen in recent debates in the teaching profession. Is teaching about the transmission of knowledge from teacher to student or is it about creating conditions in which the students learn for themselves? If you were to walk into a classroom, where would you expect to see the teacher standing at the front of the classroom controlling the students or moving around the classroom helping students as they need it? From this debate and challenge to learning approaches, the learner-centred teaching method has come to take a central place in Second Language Teaching. Learner-centred teaching takes as its focus the learners needs and experiences and makes them central to the learning process. Within this framework, it is the students needs that propel the syllabus, not a fixed text; it is the students experiences that provide a foundation upon which content is built. Student participation and engagement is the measure of the success of this classroom. Here, learning takes place during the performance stage or in the doing of the activities and tasks during which the teacher supports the students only when needed. In these situations, the teacher is no longer the giver of knowledge but a facilitator and a resource for the students to draw on. It is true that in some educational traditions both teachers and learners find a learner-centred classroom difficult to adjust to. By the same token, part of a learner-centred classroom does involve the teacher at the front of the room instructing, demonstrating or explaining something to the class. There is also a great deal of time devoted to student problem-solving in groups or pairs. In the end, it is not an either or situation. Instead, our approach as teachers will depend on the subject matter, on how we feel about teaching and what we are comfortable with, on the activity, and on the student skill level and preference. Discernment The teacher must discern when it is appropriate to intervene and when to remain silent, when to advocate for someone and when to patiently allow that person to make their own mistakes. The teacher who delivers a fixed curriculum package sees little need for discernment. He or she simply stands in front of the class, teaching the required material for that day. With such an approach it is up to the learners to take what they will from the program. For the teacher who goes a step further and embraces the complexity of second language learning, discernment is a valuable gift. How do we know when to correct a person and when to listen respectfully, without interruption, to what that person is trying to say? The answer to this is discernment: some learners think they want us to correct their 14

15 errors, but are devastated when we do. A discerning teacher learns from this experience and changes tactic with this student for future encounters. Personality of the Teacher Each of us has a unique personality. Certain traits may impact on our learners and on our teaching. Energy is a significant factor. The most successful teachers in ESL classrooms are those who possess a lot of focused energy and who use this energy to generate enthusiasm in the learners. Attitude is another factor. When the teacher has a positive attitude about life and learning, the learners absorb that. One s social skills and maturity can be assets in the classroom. A teacher has to be able to work with all people: good and bad, young and old, foolish and wise, quick to learn and slow, formally educated or not, confident and shy. We need to have a comprehensive repertoire of social skills to be able to respond to situations and to establish meaningful relationships with all of our students because it is in relationships that people learn. There has to be trust, and that means we have to know and respect one another. We cannot assume that it is the learner s responsibility to make that happen: it is our job as teachers. Languages and Intercultural Experiences One of the biggest advantages of moving overseas and immersing yourself in a new culture is what you suddenly become aware of in your own. We cannot truly know our own culture without having that mirror of difference held in front of us. Things that we have always taken for granted are now choices; some appear attractive and some unattractive. Second language learners, when dealing with someone outside their familiar cultural terrain do not know whether the difficulty is personal or cultural, as they lack the experience of discernment. The student looks to the teacher for guidance, as the student assumes that the teacher not only represents the language but also the culture of that group. By being aware of the possibility of these misunderstandings happening to ourselves, we can better understand the position of our learners overseas. Roles of the Teacher Of all the terms we use to describe ourselves as teachers, facilitator is perhaps the most effective, as it encompasses other roles quite well. All the roles we play aim to help the students progress in one way or another, whether we are prompting, correcting, tutoring or demonstrating. It is worth examining each aspect of facilitation to outline our role more clearly. Traditional Teachers When teachers are in control of the class and the teaching, they are acting in a controlling manner, in a way that is substantially different from when students are working independently in groups on a task. Traditional teachers exemplify the qualities of teacher-centred classrooms. Teachers who see themselves in a traditional manner, as passing knowledge from themselves to the students, are usually very comfortable in this role. The best teachers in this role are those who motivate and inspire their students through their knowledge and presentation style. This model, however, denies students access to their personal and experiential knowledge in favour of a focus on the teacher. In addition, it cuts down on student talk time because when the class is acting as a whole, fewer students have a chance to speak. Finally, an overreliance on this model of teaching may result in a lack of variety in classroom atmosphere. This is not to say that the traditional teaching model is not of benefit. There are many instances when it is beneficial, such as in a question and answer period, choral repetition and drill work, explanation, and teaching short grammar pieces. Organiser One important role of the teacher in a language classroom is that of organiser. Students often need to be given instruction and demonstration in clear, precise and comprehensible language to carry out an activity. This involves giving the information, the instructions, grouping them and closing the activity upon completion. It is of vital importance that the teacher performs this role well, for if the students do not understand what they are to do they may not successfully complete the task and may become frustrated and discouraged. If we do not demonstrate clearly our grouping strategy, chaos may follow! 15

16 Supporter Language students are often at a loss for words. They cannot think of the appropriate word, or they simply lack the vocabulary to proceed smoothly. What should teachers do in these circumstances? Should we hold back, let other students suggest a word or phrase, suggest to the student directly what they need, or push them forward by giving subtle and supportive hints? If we provide hints, we are in a supporting role. Supporting learners in this manner involves helping them but not taking charge of the exercise or the language. We want instead to encourage students to become independent and creative thinkers rather than have them become dependent on us for every word substitution. We occasionally offer a word, a substitution, a suggestion to continue the conversation, a prompt that supports while encouraging independence. When we support we need to do it sensitively and with discretion. If we come on too strong and take charge, we take initiative away from the student and cause them to lose face. If we allow students to falter, we also contribute to their insecurity by not offering appropriate and timely prompting. Active Participant In most traditional classrooms, the teacher is more a monitor than a participant during group or pair activities, but there are times in a communicatively-based classroom where active participation is beneficial to the learners. In some cases you may even need to be a participant owing to uneven numbers, or in the case of one-to-one teaching, being an active participant is a big part of the teacher s role. Resource Person There are situations in language classrooms, especially at the upper intermediate and advanced levels, where teacher participation of any kind is inappropriate. Group work involving composition, creative writing, and presentation preparation are times when learners should be as independent as possible, but feel free to use the teacher as a resource. Acting as a resource for learners does not mean having the answers to all the questions that students throw at you. It means having the skill to refer students to sources where they can research and find the information they need. Encouraging students to use resources and demonstrating how to use resource material encourages students to take responsibility for their learning process and to be accountable for their endeavour. Instead of immediately answering a question for a student, we can direct students to an appropriate resource. Alternatively, if we do not know the answer, we need to be able to say, I don t know, but I will try to find out and give you an answer tomorrow. Performer Many teachers who have taught using some manner of communicative methodology often refer to their teaching as performance. Teachers acknowledge that they take on a different persona inside the classroom and many speak of themselves as being more energetic, enthusiastic, humorous, and so on. They frequently describe themselves as actors. What does this acknowledgment mean? We think of performance as an enhancement to the personality and talents that all of us inherently possess. Being enthusiastic and dynamic in class, while reserved and tranquil in private, is not a contradiction, nor does it suggest insincerity. Each aspect of one s life is more suited to certain character traits and elements. Adopting performance as a key component of teaching communicatively does not mean being on stage the entire time. It implies utilising performance when it enhances and facilitates both the learning and the enjoyment of that learning. If a demonstration is called for, then do it; if humour will do the trick, then use it; if working quietly with a pair of learners is the best solution, then do so; when a team activity is being introduced, it may be appropriate to be enthusiastic; when giving directions, clarity and seriousness are called for. Always remember, all styles can be equally effective. Performative Resource Teachers use themselves as a key resource in the language classroom. We are our best teaching tool and especially useful when using mime and gesture, demonstration, and role-play. If we remain open to creativity and spontaneity, we can effectively use gesturing, facial expression, exaggeration and mime to immediately 16