Running Header: Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement PATHWAY S TO READING AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT VERSUS

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1 Running Header: Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement PATHWAY S TO READING AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT VERSUS TRADITIONAL TEACHER MADE PHONICS INSTRUCTION By SHELBY FARRIS Submitted to The Department of Professional Education Faculty Northwest Missouri State University Missouri Department of Professional Education College of Education and Human Services Maryville, MO Submitted in Fulfillment for the Requirements for Research Paper [Summer 2014] [June 29, 2015]

2 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #1 Abstract Phonemic awareness and phonics instruction are crucial to literacy development for students. When working with primary grade level students, specifically Kindergarten through Second grade, phonics instruction can be what makes or breaks a student s improvement and success in literacy instruction. At the school where this study took place they have never used a consistent approach for phonics instruction throughout the grade levels. In Kindergarten students use Jolly Phonics but this program is dropped once the students are in first grade. During the school year the Pathway s to Reading program was piloted in a first grade classroom. This study compared the effectiveness of the Pathway s to Reading program versus the traditional teacher made phonics instruction that has been used by the first grade teachers. The school where the study took place has decided that students need consistency with phonics instruction but the questions remains, what program will work best for the students and the teachers? This study will shed some light on the effectiveness of the Pathway s to Reading program. There is not a set phonics curriculum in the school where this study took place, so there was a need to look for possible strategies that could be adopted by all of the classrooms within the school. The results showed that there was a significant difference in student achievement of students that received the Pathway s to Reading instruction compared to students that received the traditional teacher made phonics instruction. Overall, the students that received Pathway s to Reading instruction

3 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #2 showed a higher growth in reading achievement than those who received traditional teacher made phonics instruction. The results of this study were shared with school administrators and used in deciding if the Pathway s to Reading program should be adopted school wide for the school year. The school has piloted several programs and the effectiveness of each program will be studied before a formal decision is made. This study has also provide an in-depth look at the needs in the area of phonics instruction for individual students and the school as a whole.

4 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #3 Introduction Background, Issues and Concerns The debate on phonics instruction has been the topic of many conversations in many schools across the country. This research took place in a large Kindergarten through second grade primary school in Missouri. Since the school opened in 2009 they have not had a consistent phonics program that they feel could be effective across the grade levels (K-2). The school where this study took place has been utilizing Jolly Phonics in their Kindergarten classrooms but both their first and second grade teachers have been utilizing the teacher made phonics program approach. The administration would really like consistency in the phonics program and will be piloting several programs in the school year. This study is based on one of the programs the school has piloted, Pathway s to Reading. Transitioning from a teacher made phonics program to a school wide phonics curriculum may be difficult. Many teachers feel that students are achieving and progressing well with the teacher made program and they do not believe that a phonics curriculum will improve student results or achievement overall. The lack of research behind the Pathway s to Reading Program is another issue that will need to be addressed. The program states that they are a researched based program and their practices are tied back to research. There is however a lack of research proving that the Pathway s to Reading Program is effective in improving student achievement when compared to other programs and

5 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #4 techniques. The lack of supporting research is a concern and it will be addressed throughout this action research project. Practice under Investigation The practice under investigation will be the effectiveness of the Pathway s to Reading Program on student achievement. School Policy to be Informed by Study The school where this study took place does not have a consistent phonics program that works effectively across the grade levels. Debate has come up regarding whether or not a school wide phonics program is necessary or if the teacher made phonics program is working effectively. This study has reviewed the effectiveness of the Pathway s to Reading Program in comparison to the effectiveness of the teacher made phonics program. The results will be used in part in helping to determine the future for the phonics program at the school where the study took place. Conceptual Underpinning In theory, Pathways to reading will increase student achievement. Studies have shown that phonological awareness is crucial in developing an effective literacy program. Pathway s to Reading provides a structured program that teaches phonics in an explicit way with a multisensory design (visual, auditory, and sensory). During the first few weeks of the Pathways to Reading program students are introduced to Vowel Town. Vowel Town introduces the main 23 vowel spellings that are important for decoding most of the words in the English

6 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #5 language. Once vowel town is taught it is referred back to daily during whole group and small group instruction. Whole group instruction follows the same basic structure each day. First a consonant pattern/rule is introduced and practiced, then a vowel pattern/rule in introduced and practiced, next student s review what has been taught by playing segment and write (word building), finally single word reading is practiced (applying prior knowledge). Pathways to Reading small group instructional components depends on the level the students are achieving, there are four levels in this program. Level one readers go over vowel practice and segment and write each day. Level two readers go over vowel practice, segment and write, introducing new words/ practicing old words, reading individual words, and reading words in context each day. Level three readers go over segment and write, introducing new words/ practicing old words, reading individual words, and reading words in context each day. Level four readers go over reading individual words and reading words in context each day. By keeping a consistent routine in both whole group and small group instruction students are encouraged to take risks and build on prior knowledge during each lesson. The teacher s manual also provides teacher s with specific responses to each individual type of student error that may occur which provides consistency. Pathways to Reading engages visual learners by providing vowel spelling cards that are color coded with the appropriate mouth shape that is needed to produce the sounds. Pathways to Reading instruction engages auditory learners by teaching and perfecting each student s phonemic awareness abilities (the ability to produce the sounds verbally) before asking them to spell the sounds they are

7 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #6 learning. Pathways to Reading instruction engages sensory learners by providing segmentation boards with magnetic letters that can be manipulated to segment and spell the vowel combinations and words that are being taught. Pathways to Reading also uses colorful picture cards to teach phonics rules and a puppet named screech to teach oddball words that do not follow traditional rules. Statement of the Problem Currently there is not a school wide phonics program that is being utilized across the grade levels. If the Pathway s to Reading Program shows a significant difference in student achievement across the grade levels, the program should be adopted school wide for the school year. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to see if the Pathway s to Reading program is an effective way to teach phonics instruction. This study will compare the Pathway s to Reading program and the traditional phonics instruction that was utilized during the school year. The results of this study will be used in deciding if the Pathway s to Reading program will be adopted as the school wide phonics program. Research Question Is there a significant difference in student achievement when the Pathway s to Reading program is utilized compared to traditional phonics instruction?

8 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #7 Null Hypothesis There is no significant difference in student achievement when in the Pathway s to Reading program is utilized compared to traditional phonics instruction. Anticipated Benefits of the Study The results of this study will be shared with school administrators and used in deciding if the Pathway s to Reading program should be adopted school wide for the school year. The school will be piloting several programs and the effectiveness of each program will be studied before a formal decision is made. This study will also provide an in-depth look at the needs in the area of phonics instruction for individual students and the school as a whole. Definition of Terms Phonological Awareness - the ability to hear and manipulate individual phonemes the ability to hear and manipulate larger units of sound, such as onsets and rimes and syllables. Phonics - a method of teaching people to read by correlating sounds with letters or groups of letters in an alphabetic writing system. Response to Intervention (RTI) - is a multi-tier approach to the early identification and support of students with learning and behavior needs. The RTI process begins

9 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #8 with high-quality instruction and universal screening of all children in the general education classroom. Title 1- Formerly known as Chapter 1, is part of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, and is the foundation of the federal commitment to closing the achievement gap between low-income and other students. Title 1 School - According to the National Center for Education Statistics, to be an eligible Title I school, at least 40% of a school's students must be from lowincome families who qualify under the United States Census's definition of lowincome, according to the U.S. Department of Education. English-language learners (ELLs) - students who are unable to communicate fluently or learn effectively in English, who often come from non-englishspeaking homes and backgrounds, and who typically require specialized or modified instruction in both the English language and in their academic courses. STAR (STAR) - A computer-based diagnostic assessment system designed by the Renaissance Learning Company. Designed for assessing literacy skill development for Pre-K 3 students.

10 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #9 The Developmental Reading Assessment (DRA) A standardized reading test used to determine a student's instructional level in reading. Administered individually to students by teachers and/or reading specialists. Reading Fluency Benchmark Assessor (RFBA) A program designed to measure reading fluency and screen for reading problems. The RFBA passages can be used to assess student progress and identify those who may need intervention with a fluency - building program. Summary This study looked at the effectiveness of the Pathway s to Reading Program on student achievement. This study was part of a school wide initiative to find a consistent phonics program that will work across the grade levels in a Kindergarten through second grade school. The Pathway s to Reading Program was piloted in a first grade classroom and assessments were given to determine the effectiveness of the program. These results were compared to a classroom that utilized a traditional teacher made phonics program and identical assessments were given to determine the effectiveness of the program. The results were then compared and analyzed. These results benefited the school by providing data that can be used in deciding which phonics program they will adopt the following school year.

11 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #10 Review of Literature Phonics instruction has been an important discussion topic between educators for several years. Through the years and through the debates one fact has been the anchor for many of these discussions; phonics instruction should be taught and is an important part of student s literacy development. The main question becomes how should it be taught and to what extent. As indicated by Cunningham (2012), Everyone seems to agree that we need to teach it and almost everyone has an opinion about how it should (and should not) be taught (p. 4). While there is no definite answer to the question, What is the best way to teach phonics instruction? there are several best practices that have been developed and researched over the years. When attempting to understand the complex ideas behind effective phonics instruction it is important to first understand what phonics means. It is also important to define the difference between phonics and phonological awareness. The definition of phonics, in its simplest form, is the correlation and encoding of speech sounds with the individual letters and groups of letters in the alphabetic system. Mesmer and Griffith (2005) take the definition of phonics a step further by relating it to educational practice, phonics refers to teaching learners the relationship between letters and sounds and how we use this system to recognize words (p.367). Phonological awareness is the ability to hear and manipulates sounds, specifically, phonemes, onsets, rimes, and syllables. Phonological awareness is a complex process of understanding the English language. Many people believe that phonemic awareness is one of the single best

12 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #11 predictors of success in learning to read (Cunningham, 2012, p. 5). Although phonics and phonological awareness have different meanings they are very connected and their relationship is important to the success of the literacy instruction for our students. Without phonological awareness the phonics instruction will be difficult for students to understand. Literacy instruction, specifically phonics instruction, is surrounded by many programs that claim they are able to address all of the areas needed to guarantee effective phonics instruction. Many of these programs come with a label, explicit, systematic phonics instruction but can they really stand the test? To explore the true effectiveness of these programs we must understand what explicit and systematic instruction looks like. According to Mesmer and Griffith (2005) explicit systematic phonics instruction has three main features; a curriculum with sequential sets, direct precise instruction, and actual practice using phonics with real words (p. 369). The idea of explicit, systematic phonics instruction has been the topic of many research materials but the difficulty comes in first understanding the process and then trying to understand how it can be applied in a real life classroom. According to Gates and Yale (2011) there are five basic clauses that should be systematically taught to students to help them develop a phonetic understanding. In Kindergarten and first grade the process of helping students to develop an understanding of phonological awareness typically focuses on some sort of word play. Read aloud experiences, specifically involving rhyming poetry can be a great way to introduce beginning readers to the concept of rimes or word

13 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #12 families (Rasinski, Rupley, & Dee Nichols, 208, p. 257). Rhyming poetry and word play activities also help students to begin to feel comfortable with automatically reading the short vowels in CVC one-syllable words. By helping students to develop an understanding of the most basic one-syllable CVC words with word play activities like rhyming we can begin to open the door for reading and decoding text. The process goes deeper once students begin to explore the other four clauses for developing a phonetic understanding. From one-syllable CVC words students move to final sound vowel consonant patters (CVCe), vowel digraphs phonograms, single consonant phonograms, and consonant di/trigraph phonograms (Gates & Yale, 2011, p.336). By understanding explicit, systematic phonics instruction and the basic clauses of effective phonics instruction we as educators can attempt to differentiate effective and ineffective phonics programs. As indicated by Cheesman, McGuire, Shankweiler, and Coyne (2009), Evidence suggests that many teachers do not have the recommended knowledge or skills sufficient to provide effective phonics or phonological awareness instruction (p. 270). The Pathways to reading program claims that with proper teacher training and professional development as well as research-based curriculum their program can improve student achievement in reading. As indicated by Apthrop (2010) the Pathways to Reading (PTR) can be defined as professional development training program and curriculum that addresses beginning reading instruction for teachers of grades K-2 and for teachers of struggling older readers (p. 2). The Pathways to Reading program believes that their program will help classroom teachers to achieve the five components for

14 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #13 establishing effective reading instruction. As stated by Cheesman, McGuire, Shankweiler, and Coyne (2009) the National Reading Panel (2000) identified five essential areas for comprehensive reading instruction phonemic awareness, systematic phonics, reading fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension strategies (p. 270). To date the true effectiveness of the Pathways to Reading Program has not been explored in depth. This study takes a closer look at the program and determines the effectiveness through action research.

15 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #14 Research Methods Research Design A quantitative study will be conducted to determine the effectiveness of the Pathway s to Reading Program. This study will also determine if the Pathway s to Reading Program is more effective in teaching phonics than traditional teacher made phonics instruction. The independent variable being tested will be the Pathway s to Reading Program and the teacher made phonics instruction, while the dependent variable will be the summative assessments that will be administered to the students. If a significant difference is found in using the Pathway s to Reading Program for phonics instruction based on the summative assessments, it will be recommended that the school adopts the Pathway s to Reading Program for the school year. Study Group Description This study will be completed using two 1 st grade general education classrooms. The group utilizing the Pathway s to Reading program has 21 students; 11 boys and 10 girls. According to the beginning of the year assessments for Title 1 this group will have eight students that will receive Title 1 services. This group also has six students that will receive RTI services. This groups RTI needs include; comprehension strategies, CVC words, phonemic awareness and sight words. There is one student that will receive ELL services. This group also has one student that has been tested and identified for the gifted program (Delta) and will receive services to enhance this student s learning. Three students in this group receive counseling services during the school day. This classroom has 13

16 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #15 Caucasian students, 4 Hispanic students, 2 Asian students, and 1 African American student. This classroom has five students who utilize the free and reduced lunch program. The group utilizing the teacher made phonics program has 20 students; 10 girls and 10 boys. According to the beginning of year assessments for Title 1 this group will have six students that will receive Title 1 services. This group also has 5 students that will receive RTI services. This groups RTI needs include; comprehension strategies, CVC words, phonemic awareness and sight words. There is one student that will receive ELL services. This group does not have any students currently receiving gifted services or counseling services. This classroom has 12 Caucasian students, 4 Hispanic students, 3 African American students, and 1 student from Saudi Arabia. This classroom has 4 students who utilize the free and reduced lunch program. Data Collection and Instrumentation The following assessments will be tracked each quarter and then compared with data from a classroom utilizing the traditional phonics instruction. STAR reading test DRAs Reading Naturally Fluency Assessment Statistical Analysis Methods A t-test will be conducted to determine if there is a significant difference in student achievement based on the Pathway s to Reading Program when compared to traditional teacher made phonics instruction.

17 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #16 Findings Research Question Is there a significant difference in student achievement when the Pathway s to Reading program is utilized compared to traditional phonics instruction? Pathway s to Reading Group- STAR Reading Assessment Student Scaled Score Scaled Score Growth in Scaled Score (Sept. 2014) (May 2015) (Sept.-May) # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

18 Scaled Score Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #17 Pathway's to Reading Group- STAR Reading Growth Students Scaled Score (September) Scaled Score (May) The data above represents the students that were part of the Pathway s to Reading Group. The data shows the differences in each students scaled score on the STAR Reading assessment from September of 2014 to May The blue represents the scores in September and the green represents the scores in May. The graph shows that each student in this group had an increase in their reading scaled score based on the STAR Reading Test.

19 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #18 Teacher Made Phonics- STAR Reading Assessment Student Scaled Score Scaled Score Growth in Scaled Score (Sept. 2014) (May 2015) (Sept.-May) # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

20 Scaled Score Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #19 Teacher Made Phonics Group- STAR Reading Growth Students STAR Scaled Score (September) STAR Scaled Score (May) The data above represents the students that were part of the teacher made phonics group. The data shows the differences in each students scaled score on the STAR Reading assessment from September of 2014 to May The blue represents the scores in September and the green represents the scores in May. The graph shows that each student in this group had an increase in their reading scaled score based on the STAR Reading Test.

21 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #20 T-Test Analysis Results for STAR Reading Source Mean Mean D t-test df p-value Path to Read (n=21) Teach Made (n=20) Note: Alpha Level.10 This data did not support the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in student achievement when in the Pathway s to Reading program is utilized compared to traditional phonics instruction. The mean growth in scaled scores for students that received Pathway s to Reading instruction was while the mean for students that received traditional teacher made phonics instruction was The data did show that the group that received Pathway s to Reading instruction did have a better mean growth in their reading fluency based on the STAR Reading assessment. The p value was The t test was The degrees of freedom was 39. Since the p value of is less than the alpha level of.10 the null hypothesis was rejected.

22 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #21 Student Words Read Correctly Per Minute Pathway s to Reading Group- Fluency Words Read Correctly Per Minute Growth in Words Read Correctly Per Minute (Sept. 2014) (May 2015) (Sept.-May) # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

23 Words Read Correctly Per Minute Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement # Fluency Growth- Pathway's to Reading Group Students Words Read Correctly Per Minute (September) Words Read Correctly Per Minute (May) The data above represents the students that were part of the Pathway s to Reading Group. The data shows the differences in reading fluency from September of 2014 to May The blue represents the scores in September and the green represents the scores in May. The graph shows that each student in this group had an increase in their reading Fluency based on the Reading Naturally Fluency Benchmark Assessment.

24 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #23 Student Words Read Correctly Per Minute Teacher Made Phonics Group- Fluency Words Read Correctly Per Minute Growth in Words Read Correctly Per Minute (Sept. 2014) (May 2015) (Sept.-May) # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

25 Words Read Correctly Per Minute Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #24 Fluency- Teacher Made Phonics Group Students Words Read Correctly Per Minute (September) Words Read Correctly Per Minute (May) The data above represents the students that were part of the teacher made phonics group. The data shows the differences in reading fluency from September of 2014 to May The blue represents the scores in September and the green represents the scores in May. The graph shows that each student in this group had an increase in their reading Fluency based on the Reading Naturally Fluency Benchmark Assessment.

26 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #25 T-Test Analysis Results for Fluency Source Mean Mean D t-test df p-value Path to Read (n=21) Teach Made (n=20) Note: Alpha Level.10 This data did not support the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in student achievement when in the Pathway s to Reading program is utilized compared to traditional phonics instruction. The mean growth in words per minute read correctly for students that received Pathway s to Reading instruction was while the mean for students that received traditional teacher made phonics instruction was The data did show that the group that received teacher made phonics instruction did have a better mean growth in their reading fluency based on the Reading Naturally Fluency Benchmark assessment. However, the p value was The t test was The degrees of freedom was 39. Since the p value of was less than the alpha level of.10 the null hypothesis was rejected.

27 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #26 Pathway s to Reading Group- DRA Level Student DRA Reading Level DRA Reading Level Growth in DRA Reading Level (Sept. 2014) (May 2015) (Sept.-May) # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

28 DRA Reading Level Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #27 Pathway's to Reading Group- DRA Reading Level Growth Students DRA Reading Level (September) DRA Reading Level (May) The data above represents the students that were part of the Pathway s to Reading Group. The data shows the differences in reading levels from September of 2014 to May The blue represents the scores in September and the green represents the scores in May. The graph shows that each student in this group had an increase in their reading level based on the DRA Reading Assessment.

29 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #28 Teacher Made Phonics Group- DRA Level Student DRA Reading Level DRA Reading Level Growth in DRA Reading Level (Sept. 2014) (May 2015) (Sept.-May) # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #

30 DRA Reading Level Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #29 30 Teacher Made Phonics Group- DRA Reading Level Growth Students DRA Reading Level (September) DRA Reading Level (May) The data above represents the students that were part of the teacher made phonics group. The data shows the differences in reading levels from September of 2014 to May The blue represents the scores in September and the green represents the scores in May. The graph shows that each student in this group had an increase in their reading level based on the DRA Reading Assessment.

31 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #30 T-Test Analysis Results for DRA Level Source Mean Mean D t-test df p-value Path to Read (n=21) Teach Made (n=20) Note: Alpha Level.10 This data did not support the null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in student achievement when in the Pathway s to Reading program is utilized compared to traditional phonics instruction. The mean growth in DRA Level for students that received Pathway s to Reading instruction was while the mean for students that received traditional teacher made phonics instruction was The data did show that the group that received Pathway s to Reading instruction did have a better mean growth in their reading fluency based on the DRA assessment. The p value was The t test was The degrees of freedom was 39. Since the p value of was less than the alpha level of.10 the null hypothesis was rejected.

32 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #31 Conclusions and Recommendations The outcomes of this research had positive results. The null hypothesis that there is no significant difference in student achievement when in the Pathway s to Reading program is utilized compared to traditional phonics instruction was rejected. All of the students in this study showed improvements in their STAR reading scores, DRA Level, as well as reading fluency regardless of which instruction they received. However, the growth results for the Pathway s to Reading Group were significant enough to reject the null hypothesis. The students in the Pathway s to Reading Group received 20 minutes of whole group phonics instruction three times a week and 20 minutes of small group phonics instruction three to five times a week depending on individual student need. Pathways to Reading is a prescriptive program and the Teacher s Manual was used for small group and whole group instruction. Overall, the findings showed that using a consistent and strategic phonics program in the classroom will have positive effects on student achievement. The use of the Pathway s to Reading program should be recommended as part of a well-rounded reading program. This program could be used in small group and whole group instruction. Also, pieces of the daily instruction can be used during Reader s Workshop independent work time. The classrooms at the school where this study was done should definitely use this as one of the tools for instruction. To make this argument stronger, the sample size needs to be expanded and completed over more than a year. The sample size for this research was 41 students but only included two of the seven first grade sections. The study could

33 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #32 also be used across the seven Kindergarten and six Second Grade classrooms. This study only accounts for one year of student achievement. It would be important to see this study done with more students across different grade levels within the school to see if the results would carry over and continue before purchasing and using the Pathway s to Reading program school and district wide.

34 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #33 References Apthrop, H. S., (2010). Pathways to Reading: A Study of Participant Pedagogical Content Knowledge. (Research Report). Retrieved from Cheesman, E. A., McGuire, J. M., Shankweiler, D., & Coyne, M. (2009). First-Year Teacher Knowledge of Phonemic Awareness and Its Instruction. Teacher Education & Special Education, 32(3), Retrieved from EBSCOhost database. Cunningham, P. (2012). Teaching Phonics. The California Reader, 45(3), 4-7. Retrieved from EBSCOhost database. Gates, L., & Yale, I. (2011). A Logical Letter-Sound System in Five Phonic Generalizations. The Reading Teacher, 64(5), doi: /rt Manning, M. (2004). Six Phonics Myths Dispelled. Teaching Pre K-8, 34(8), pp Retrieved from EBSCOhost database. Pathways to Reading, Inc. (2012). Kindergarten: How PTR meets the Common Core Standards. Retrieved from Pathways to Reading, Inc. (2012). First Grade: How PTR meets the Common Core Standards. Retrieved from Pathways to Reading, Inc. (2012). Second Grade: How PTR meets the Common Core Standards. Retrieved from

35 Pathway s to Reading and Student Achievement #34 Rasinski, T., Rupley, W. H., & Dee Nichols, W. (2008). Two Essential Ingredients: Phonics and Fluency Getting to Know Each Other. The Reading Teacher, 62(3), Retrieved from EBSCOhost database. Stahl, S. A. (1992). Saying the "p" word: Nine guidelines for exemplary phonics instruction. The Reading Teacher, 45(8), Retrieved from EBSCOhost database. Trachtenburg, P. (1990). Using children's literature to enhance phonics instruction. The Reading Teacher, 43(9), Retrieved from EBSCOhost database.