ExceptJonal ChJidren. Capturing Implicit Policy From NCLB Test Type Assignments of Students With Disabilities

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1 Vol. 78, No. 1, pp CoucilforExceptioal Childre. ExceptJoal ChJidre Capturig Implicit Policy From NCLB Test Type Assigmets of Studets With Disabilities HYUN-JEONG CHO NEAL KINGSTON Uiversity of Kasas ABSTRACT: T: This study examied the learer characteristics ad performace scores of studets i the 2009 alterate assessmet-modified achievemet stadard for oe Midwester state. Comparig performace differeces by disability category for each cotet area from the studets' 2008 test type assigmets ad performace scores facilitated examiig the appropriateess ofthe 2009 test type assigmet. The results raise cocers because some studets with disabilities seemed to have bee iappropriately assiged to test type. Studets with itellectual disabilities had the lowest performaces across grade level ad subject area. Limitatios ad implicatios of this study are discussed ad suggestios for future research are offered. The No Ghild Left Behid Act of 2001 (NGLB, 2006) ad the Idividuals With Disabilities Educatio Act (IDEA) have become crucial for holdig schools accoutable for tbe teachig ad learig of all studets, icludig studets with disabilities. Most studets with disabilities participate i Title I geeral assessmets with or without accommodatio, but some studets with disabilities participate i alterate assessmets. Alterate assessmets are iteded for studets with disabilities who have bee uable to participate i geeral assessmets, eve with accommodatios (Kleiert & Thurlow, 2001). Studets with the most sigificat cogitive disabilities take the alterate assessmets based o alterate acbieve-. met stadards (AA-AAS) which are liked to grade level cotet stadards but differ i complexity ad scope (U.S. Departmet of Educatio, 2005). States also have the optio of developig a alterate assessmet based o grade-level achievemet stadards (AA-GLAS) for studets who are capable of performig o grade level but eed a format other tha the traditioal multiple-choice test to demostrate their kowledge ad skills. However, some studets with disabilities fall ito a gap betwee the geeral assessmet ad the AA-AAS; these studets would ot be able to Fall 2011

2 show proficiecy o the geeral assessmet ad yet are ot assessed appropriately by the AA-AAS. I 2007, revised NCLB regulatios respoded to this situatio by givig states the optio of providig a alterate assessmet based o modified academic achievemet stadards (AA-MAS; 34 C.RR [e]). Whe the AA-MAS optio was first aouced by the U.S. Departmet of Educatio i 2005, it provoked a immediate, prologed, ad sometimes heated debate over its role i studet assessmet. The debate cetered o how a AA-MAS should be implemeted, whether it would distace some studets from the geeral educatio curriculum, ad how to defie which studets should participate. Some Studets with disabilities fall ito a gap betwee the geeral assessmet ad the AA-AAS; these studets would ot be able to show proflciecy o the geeral assessmet ad yet are ot assessed appropriately by the AA-AAS. Federal rules ad guidelies have evolved i respose to the cotroversy. Curret regulatios for participatio i a AA-MAS are that the studet must be idetified as havig a disability that precludes him or her from achievig the gradelevel stadard withi the curret year, ad the studet must have a idividualized educatio program (IEP) that emphasizes grade-level cotet stadards (34 C.F.R. Parts 200 ad 300). The assessmets are required to cover the same breadth ad depth as the other grade-level assessmets. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF MODIFIED STANDARDS? ACHIEVEMENT IDEA ad NCLB require that studets with disabilities have access to the geeral educatio curriculum ad have their progress i the curriculum moitored; however, for adequate yearly progress (AYP) purposes, IDEA ad NCLB impose a cap of 2% for studets with disabilities out of the whole school populatio (calculated at the state ad local educatio agecy [LEA] levels) that may be categorized as proficiet or above based o modified academic achievemet stadards. I additio, these Acts expect states to provide a appropriate assessmet of what studets kow ad what they ca do across all cotet areas, ot oly for accoutability purposes but also i order to provide iformatio that could help guide istructio. WHO IS ELIGIBLE TO PARTICIPATE IN ALTERNATE ASSESSMENTS MODIFIED STANDARDS? BASED ON ACHIEVEMENT There are five rules to be used to decide a studet's eligibility for a AA-MAS. First, the studet's IEP team must decide the studet's eligibility to participate i a AA-MAS. Eve if sigificat growth occurs after appropriate istructio, the IEP team must be reasoably certai that the studet will ot achieve grade-level proficiecy withi the year covered by the studet's IEP (34 C.RR [e][2][ii][A]). Secod, states must provide school districts with clear ad appropriate crit:eria to guide the IEP team's decisio makig about whether to assig a studet to the AA-MAS (34 CFR 200.1[f][l][i]). There are three criteria states must address (U.S. Departmet of Educatio, 2007). The first criterio is that the studet's IEP goals are based o academic cotet stadards for the grade i which the studet is erolled (U.S. Departmet of Educatio, 2007, p. 29). There are several ways this criterio may be met: by statemets of IEP goals that are explicitly aliged to grade-level-cotet stadards i readig, math, ad sciece; by IEP requiremets that the curriculum cotai grade-level material; or by a statemet from a IEP team member that the IEP goals ad istructios alig with grade-level cotet. The secod criterio is that the studet is uable to achieve grade-level proficiecy due to a disability, as reflected i the studet's performace o school district, state, or other assessmets that place the studet at the lowest proficiecy level i academic achievemet. The third criterio is that eve if sigificat growth Exceptioal Childre

3 occuts, it is apparet to the IEP team that the studet caot achieve grade-level proficiecy withi the timeframe stated i the IEP (34 CER. Third, each subject area must be cosidered separately. Fourth, the decisio to have the studet participate i the AA-MAS must be made aually based o multiple valid ad objective measures of the studet's achievemet. Fifth, the studet must be receivig istructio based o his or her grade level geeral curriculum; studets i a AA-MAS should ot be ivolved i "out-oflevel" tests (U.S. Departmet of Educatio, 2007, p. 25). A Natioal Ceter o Educatioal Outcomes project reviewed ie states' AA-MAS participatio guidelies ad sythesized fiftee categories of criteria (Altma et al., 2008). Altma ad colleagues foud that the most frequetly occurrig criteria were based o those specified i the federal regulatios, for example, that the studet must have a IEP ad that the decisio must ot be based o the studet's disability label. Some states also provided exclusio criteria, such as the decisio ot beig based o placemet settig, the studet ot beig eligible for the AA-AAS, ad ot havig a patter of past performace attributable to excessive abseces or other oistructioal factors (e.g., cultural, laguage, ecoomic). THE CURRENT STUDY This study examied the characteristics of elemetary school studets with disabilities takig a AA-MAS i readig or matb i the 2009 school year i oe Midwester state, their performace scores, ad their disability category. We also examied their 2008 assessmets with respect to test type (AA-MAS, Geeral, AA-AAS) ad performace scores i order to gauge compliace with state ad federal laws. I our study, the populatio of a AA-MAS for a give cotet area was studets with disabilities who did ot meet eligibility criteria for the AA-AAS or for the geeral assessmet for that cotet area. We also excluded studets with low performace scores due to oistructio factors such as high mobility or socioecoomic or cultural factors. This state provides a fiowchart to guide the IEP team i its decisio about participatio i AA-MAS (e.g.. Is the studet multiple years behid grade level expectatio? Does the studet eed sigificat chages i the complexity ad scope of the geeral stadards to show progress i the curriculum? Does the studet eed support to sigificatly reduce the complexity or breadth of assessmet items?). The state provides IEP teams with this flowchart to determie the appropriate populatio. AA-MAS have bee desiged for use with a specific populatio i mid: studets who should have bee takig the geeral assessmet but are ulikely to perform well ad are ot eligible for the AA-AAS. Therefore, they have bee recommeded to participate i the AA-MAS. A aalysis of the 2008 Federal Peer Review of the five states with a AA-MAS optio at that time foud that all of the states met some of the federal requiremets uder NCLB or IDEA, but that oe met all of the tequiremets (Filbi, 2008; Lazarus, Thompso, & Thurlow, 2006). Oe problem that all the states had i commo was i defiig the guidelies to esure that appropriate studets were idetified (Filbi, 2008; Lazarus et al. 2006; Thurlow, 2008); iappropriate assigmet to AA-MAS is a threat to the validity of AA-MAS. The Natioal Research Coucil's Committee o the Foudatios of Assessmet developed the framework for the cocept of the assessmet triagle (Pellegrio, Chudowsky, Si Glaser, 2001). The triagle is a theoretical framework for coceptualizig assessmets. The three vertices of the assessmet triagle are cogitio, observatio, ad iterpretatio, what Pellegrio ad colleagues described as the three pillars o which every assessmet must stad: (a) cogitio refers to the model of studet cogitio ad how a studet develops competece, (b) observatio refers to a meas for the studet to demostrate kowledge ad skills, ad (c) iterpretatio refers to drawig ifereces from the performace evidece (p. 44). The preset study focused o the cogitio ad observatio vertices of the assessmet triagle ad was desiged to aswer the followig research questios: Fall 2011

4 Were there differeces i performace amog the disability categories i the state's AA-MAS readig ad math assessmets i 2009? What type of tests did studets with disabilities who took a AA-MAS readig or AA- MAS math i 2009 take i 2008, ad what were their performace scores? Were studet assigmets to the 2009 AA-MAS assessmets appropriate based o their 2008 performace score ad test type? If iappropriate, what was their 2009 AA-MAS performace? What were the disability categories of studets who took the 2008 AA-AAS readig ad math assessmet ad subsequetly took. the 2009 AA-MAS readig ad math assessmet.' METHOD We extracted data from a state database of studet performace, assessmet iformatio, ad demographics ad selected participats from 4,209 elemetary studets who took the 2009 AA-MAS readig assessmet ad 3,489 elemetary studets who took the 2009 AA-MAS math assessmet; we icluded oly those studets for whom assessmet data also were available from the 2008 school year. Thus, this sample comprised studets who were third, fourth, ad fifth graders i 2008 ad fourth, fifth, ad sixth graders i 2009, with approximately equal umbers i each grade. The selected sample umbered 3,260 studet participats iti the readig assessmet ad 2,743 i the math assessmet.. DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION Table 1 presets demographics for participats i the readig ad mathematics AA-MAS. For each of the tests, more tha half of the studets were classified as White. Participats were predomiatly male, ad the most commo primary disability category was learig disability (LD). Table 2 separately presets Natioal School Luch Program status; this iformatio was ot available for all participats. DATA ANALYSIS We used descriptive statistics to summarize demographic iformatio, to describe disability category differeces i accommodatios provided, ad to describe the distributio of studets i the various assessmet types i 2008 (i.e., geeral, AA-MAS, AA-AAS) to the AA-MAS assessmet type i We coducted chi-square tests of idepedece to examie readig ad math proficiecy levels by assessmet type i 2008 ad to compare studets' 2008 geeral, AA-MAS, ad the AA-AAS math ad readig proficiecy levels with their 2009 AA-MAS math ad readig proficiecy levels. We coducted a series of uivariate aalyses of variace to explore studet AA-MAS performace score differeces amog studet disability categories for each cotet area separately (see Table 3). Each aalysis cosisted of a omibus test of betwee-groups differeces which, whe foud to be statistically sigificat, was followed by Boferroi-adjusted, pairwise comparisos. We also performed descriptive statistics, cross tabulatio, ad chi-square aalyses to compare performace scores, test types, subject areas, ad years. RESULTS 2009 AA-MAS READING PERFORMANCE DIFFERENCES AMONG ELEMENTARY STUDENT DISABILITY CATEGORIES A aalysis of variace determied differeces amog disability categories with regard to 2009 AA-MAS readig performace scores. Readig performace meas raged from 2.81 {SD = 0.85) to 3.75 {SD = 1.17). Aalysis of variace foud a sigificat effect of disability category o readig performace category scores, F (10, 3249) = 16.78,/) <.001, ií2 =.05. Boferroi adjusted pairwise comparisos showed that studets with LD, emotioal or behavioral disorders (EBD), speech/laguage impairmet (SLI), ad other health impairmet (OHI) eared sigificatly higher readig scores tha studets with itellectual disabilities (ID). No other disability category pairs were statistically differet from each other i readig performace scores. Exceptioal Childre

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7 TABLE Alterate Assessmet Based o Modified Achievemet Stadards (AA-MAS) Readig ad Math Performace Differeces Amog Elemetary Studet Disability Categories Participats N Readig AA-MAS Mea SD Mathematics AA-MAS N Mea SD 3, , Disability category Autism Developmetal delay Emotioal or bebavioral disorder Hearig impairmet Learig disability Multiple disabilities Itellectual disability Otber bealtb impairmet Ortbopedic impairmet Speecb/laguage impairmet Traumatic brai ijury Visual impairmet , , , AA-MAS MATH PERFORMANCE DIFFERENCES AMONC ELEMENTARY STUDENT DISABILITY CATECORIES A aalysis of variace determied differeces amog disability categories with regard to 2009 AA-MAS math performace scores. Math performace meas raged from 2.59 {SD = 0.78) to 3.44 {SD = 1.01). The aalysis of variace omibus test foud a sigificat effect of disability o math scores, F (12, 2730) = 13.60,;; =.00l, i]^ =.06. Pairwise comparisos usig a Boferroi adjustmet for multiple comparisos showed that studets with LD, EBD, SLI, OHI, ad visual impairmet (VI) had sigificatly higher math scores tha studets with itellectual disabilities (ID). No other disability category pairs were statistically differet from each other i math performace scores. WHICH TYPE OE READING ASSESSMENTS DID STUDY PARTICIPANTS TAKE IN 2008? Frequecy tabulatios showed that 26.5% [ = 864) of the 2009 AA-MAS readig studets took the geeral educatio readig test i The majority of the 2009 AA-MAS readig studets, 71.8% { = 2,338), took the AA-MAS readig test i 2008, ad 1.7% { = 54) took the AA-AAS readig test i How WELL DID PARTICIPANTS PERFORM ON THEIR 2008 READING ASSESSMENTS!' For this aalysis, we divided studets ito two groups, (a) less tha proficiet ad (b) proficiet or above, based o the level of performace o their 2008 readig tests. A chi-square test of idepedece testig the relatioship of the dichotomized studet performace with test type (i.e., geeral, AA-MAS, AA-AAS) foud a sigificat depedecy of performace o test type, x^ (2) = 1,097.63,/ <.001. Of those who took the 2008 geeral readig test, 20.4% were proficiet or above, compared with the 82.5% of the studets who took the 2008 AA-MAS readig test who were proficiet or above, ad the 87.0% of 2008 AA-AAS studets who were proficiet or above (see Table 4). All of these studets were subsequetly assiged to take the 2009 AA-MAS readig assessmet. Fall 2011

8 TABLE Readig Assessmet Performace of Studets Who Took the 2009 Readig AA-MAS (N = 3,256) Assessmet Type Less Tha Proficiet Proficiet or Above Geeral AA-MAS AA-AAS , G , , Note. Excludes study participats who did ot take a readig assessmet i 2008 («= 4). AA-MAS = alterate assessmet based o modified academic achievemet stadards; AA-AAS = alterate assessmet based o alterate achievemet stadards. How DID STUDENTS' PERFORMANCE ON THE 2008 READING ASSESSMENTS COMPARE WITH THEIR 2009 AA-MAS? For this aalysis, performace scores were agai dichotomized: (a) less tha proficiet ad (b) proficiet or above (see Table 5). A chi-square test of idepedece foud a depedecy betwee performace o the 2008 geeral readig test ad performace o the 2009 AA-MAS readig test, X2(l) = ,/)<.001. Ofthose who were proficiet or above i their 2008 geeral readig tests, 98.3% («= 173) were also proficiet or above i their 2009 AA-MAS readig assessmet, whereas 89.2% { = 614) ofthose who were less tha proficiet i their 2008 geeral readig assessmet were proficiet or above i their 2009 AA-MAS readitig test. A chi-square test of idepedece also foud a depedecy betwee performace o the 2008 AA-MAS readig test ad performace o the 2009 AA-MAS readig test, x^i'^) = ,/ <.001. Of those who were proficiet or above o their 2008 AA-MAS tests, 91.7% («= 1,769) also were proficiet or above o their 2009 AA-MAS performace; 58.7% («= 240) ofthose who were less tha proficiet o their 2008 AA-MAS readig assessmet were proficiet or above o their 2009 AA-MAS readig performace. A chi-square test of idepedece foud that studets' performace o the AA-MAS readig test i 2009 was idepedet of their performace i the AA-AAS readig performace i It should be oted that 50% of the cells i this two-by-two desig had expected values less tha 5, so statistical power to demostrate depedecy, if there is a depedecy, was lackig i this data. WHICH TYPE OF MATH ASSESSMENT DID STUDY PARTICIPANTS TAKE IN 2008? Frequecy tabulatios showed that 29.7% («= 813) of the 2009 AA-MAS math studets took the geeral educatio math test i The majority of the 2009 AA-MAS math studets (68.3%, = 1,874) took the 2008 AA-MAS math test, ad 1.5% { = 42) of the studets who took the 2009 AA-MAS math test took the 2008 AA- AAS math test. How WELL DID PARTICIPANTS PERFORM ON THEIR 2008 MATH ASSESSMENTS? Agai, we divided the studets ito two groups, (a) less tha proficiet ad (b) proficiet or above, based o their scores o their 2008 math assessmets. A chi-square test of idepedece testig the relatioship of the dichotomized studet performace with the type of test (i.e., geeral, AA-MAS, AA-AAS) i^oud a sigificat depedecy of performace with test type, X^(l) = , p <.001. Ofthose who took the 2008 geeral math assessmet, 21.0% were proficiet or above; 77.1% ofthose who took the 2008 AA- MAS math test ad 90.5% ofthose who took the 2008 AA-AAS math assessmet were proficiet or Exceptioal Childre 65

9 TABLE 5 Dichotomous Groupig of 2008 Readig Performace Compared With Performace o the 2009 Readig AA-MAS 2008 Readig Assessmet Geeral Assessmet (A^ = 864) Less tba proficiet Proficiet or above AA-MAS (A? =2,338) Less tba proficiet Proficiet or above AA-AAS {N= 54) Less tba proficiet Proficiet or above Rercetage Rercetage Rercetage Rercetage Performace o 2009 Readig AA-MAS Less Tha Proficiet Proficiet or Above , , r Note. AA-MAS = alterate assessmet based o modified academic acbievemet stadards; AA-AAS = alterate assessmet based o alterate acbievemet stadards. above (see Table 6). All of these studets were subsequetly assiged to the 2009 AA-MAS math assessmet. How DID STUDENTS' PERFORMANCE ON THE 2008 MATH ASSESSMENTS COMPARE WITH THEIR 2009 AA-MAS? Usig dichotomized performace scores, (a) less tha proficiet ad (b) proficiet or above, a chisquare test of idepedece foud a depedecy betwee the performace of studets who took the 2009 AA-MAS math assessmet ad their prior performace o the 2008 geeral math assessmet, x^(l) = ,/)<.001. Of those who were proficiet or above o their 2008 geeral math assessmets, 95.9% { = 164) were proficiet or above o their 2009 AA-MAS math performace. Of those who were less tha proficiet o their 2008 geeral math assessmets, 85.4% { = 550) were proficiet or above o their AA- MAS 2009 performace (see Table 7). A chi-square test of idepedece foud that the performace of studets who took the 2009 AA-MAS math assessmet also was depedet o their petformace o the 2008 AA-MAS math assessmet, x^(l) = ,/)<.001. Of those who were proficiet ot above o their 2008 AA-MAS assessmets, 81.4% ( = 1,175) were also proficiet or above o their 2009 AA-MAS performace. Of those who were less tha proficiet o their 2008 AA-MAS assessmets, 44.4% («= 191) were proficiet or above o their 2009 AA- MAS performace. A chi-square test of idepedece foud that studets' performace o the 2009 AA-MAS math assessmet was idepedet of their perfor- 66 Fall 2011

10 TABLE Math Assessmet Performace of Studets Who Took the 2009 Math AA-MAS (^ = 2,731) Performace Assessmet Type Less Tha Proficiet Proficiet or Above Geeral AA-MAS AA-AAS , , , Note. Excludes study participats who did ot take a math assessmet i 2008 («= 12). AA-MAS = alterate assessmet based o modified academic achievemet stadards; AA-AAS = alterate assessmet based o alterate achievemet stadards. maee o the 2008 AA-AAS math assessmet, With few AA-AAS studets, 50% of the cells i this 2 by 2 desig had expected values less tha dece was lackig. Table 8 presets the disability categories of the studets who took the readig or math AA-AAS i 2008 ad took the corre- 5, so statistical power to demostrate idepe- spodig (readig or math) AA-MAS i TABLE 7 Dichotomous Groupig of 2008 Math Performace Compared With Performace o the 2009 Math AA-MAS Performace o 2009 Math AA-MAS 2008 Math Assessmet Less Tha Proficiet Proficiet or Above Geeral Assessmet (7V= 815) Less tha proficiet Proficiet or above AA-MAS {N= 1,874) Less tha proficiet Proficiet or above AA-AAS (Af= 42) AA.A 1, , Less tha proficiet Proficiet or above Exceptioal Childre 67

11 TABLE 8 Disability Categories of Studets Who Took tbe 2008 Alterate Achievemet Stadards Assessmet ad Subsequetly Took tbe 2009 Alterate Assessmet Based o Modified Achievemet Stadards Autism Developmetal Disability Emotioall Behavioral Disorder Hearig Impairmet Learig Disability Itellectual Disability Other Health Impairmet Orthopedic Impairmet Readig (Af = 55) Math N DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to describe the characteristics of studets with disabilities, their AA-MAS performace scores, ad their performace i the precedig year, i order to refie uderstadig of this populatio ad improve practice. This study corroborates the fidigs of other recet studies ad raises questios about eligibility. Similar to the fidigs of the NGEO survey (Altma et al., 2008), we foud that, the majority of AA-MAS studets i this Midwester state beloged to a few disability categories, primarily LD ad ID. We foud that studets with ID had the lowest performace scores across subject areas ad across grade levels. Traditioally, may of these studets, icludig those with more mild itellectual disabilities, fuctioed academically below grade levels appropriate to their age groups. Perhaps the focus of their istructio was o cotet stadards at lower grade levels ad oacademic cotet, such as life skills. Joseph ad Eveleigh (2009) sythesized 20 years of research o self-moitorig but foud o studies o self-moitorig istructio for studets with ID. Failure to provide appropriate istructio to studets with ID jeopardizes their academic achievemet. The preset study foud that 5.3% of studets assiged to the 2009 AA-MAS readig assessmet ad 6.2% of those assiged to the 2009 AA-MAS math assessmet scored proficiet or above o the previous (2008) year's geeral readig ad math assessmets, respectively. If these studets were ot misassiged to the AA-MAS assessmets i 2009 after demostratig proficiecy the previous year, what justificatios might their IEP teams have for these placemets? Perhaps the studets were ot performig well o other assessmets, such as iterim assessmets or curriculum based assessmets. Perhaps some studets achieved proficiecy but with little margi to spare, ad the IEP teams felt the studet would profit more by participatig i the ext year's AA- MAS. Aother possibility is that teachers are uder such great pressure that takig the extra time ad resources to istruct studets with disabilities detracts from their ability to properly prepare geeral assessmet studets without disabilities. Maybe teachers are uder such great pressure for tbeir classes to meet AYP that makig thigs easier for the oes who are eligible, studets with disabilities, seems prudet. Or perhaps some teachers simply have low expectatios for their studets with disabilities. This Study corroborates the. fidigs of other recet studies ad raises questios about eligibility. I 1984, special educatio researcher Ae Doella wrote that The criterio of least dagerous assumptio holds that i the absece of coclusive data. 68 Fall 2011

12 educatioal decisios ougbt to be based o assumptios wbicb, if icorrect, will bave tbe least dagerous effect o tbe likelibood tbat studets will be able to fuctio idepedetly as adults, (p. 142) Doella (1984) maitaied that i the absece of evidece to the cotrary, educators should assume that poor performace is due to istructioal deficits rather tha studet deficits. Some studets i the preset study achieved advaced or exemplary scores i AA-MAS readig (15.5%, N= 591) or i AA-MAS math (9.4%, A^ = 416) 2 years i a row (2008 ad 2009). Accordig to the U.S. Departmet of Educatio (2007), "there will be studets with disabilities who take a alterate assessmet based o modified academic achievemet stadards oe year, make cosiderable progress durig the school year, ad the take the geeral grade-level assessmet the followig year." The Departmet of Educatio guidelies do ot specify a performace score criterio for shiftig studets from AA-MAS to the geeral assessmet. I the preset study, approximately 7% of studets achieved less tha proficiet scores o both their 2008 ad 2009 AA-MAS readig assessmets, ad 13% were less tha proficiet o their 2008 ad 2009 AA-MAS math assessmets. Approximately 65% of these studets qualified for the Natioal School Luch Program. Of the readig assessmet group, 46% were studets with LD, 25% were studets with ID, ad 10% were studets with OHI. Of the math assessmet group, 35% were studets with LD, 25% were studets with ID, ad 15% were studets with OHI. Research has show that studet characteristics related to disability, ethicity, poverty, ad other demographic categories are associated with a history of low expectatios ad limited opportuities to lear. Uless thete is effective itervetio to chage the learig opportuities for studets with these demographics, past performace caot be used to predict which studets will achieve academic proficiecy. This is true for studets with disabilities as well as for those without disabilities. More research is eeded that accouts for the characteristics of studets ad determies whether low-achievig studets did ot respod well to itervetio or simply did ot have adequate opportuity to lear. Studies should cosider the cogitive, itervetioal, ad eurobiological perspectives of this subgroup. The primary disabilities of the studets who took part i the AA-AAS readig assessmets i 2008 ad the participated i the 2009 AA-MAS readig assessmets, ad of the studets who took the 2008 AA-AAS math ad the the 2009 AA- MAS math, were LD, hearig impairmet (HI), EBD, ad OHI. Noe of these primary disability categories ivolves itellectual impairmet, oe of the mai eligibility criteria for iclusio i the state AA-AAS. Cosiderig disability category would be desirable to establish exclusioary criteria so that studets with ocogitive disabilities are ot icluded i the AA-AAS. LIMITATIONS OF FINDINGS' We selected studet data from the 2009 assessmet for aalysis i this study based o whether there was assessmet data for the same studet i the 2008 school year. May of the studet records i the 2009 assessmet had o matchig record i the 2008 database. We had isufficiet iformatio to determie why certai studets with disabilities achieved at or above proficiecy i readig ad math i the geeral educatio assessmet i 2008, yet were placed i the AA-MAS assessmet i We were uable to determie why studets achievig proficiecy or above i AA-MAS assessmets i 2008 were still takig AA-MAS assessmets i We were also uable to lear the reasos studets with the primary disabilities of LD, EBD, ad OHI were icluded i the AA- AAS. We were uable to access studet IEP documets, which would have bee helpful i uderstadig teachers' roles i the process. Additioally, we were ot able to determie why some of the studets takig the AA-AAS or AA-MAS i 2008 performed better i 2009 tha i Perhaps teachers' expectatios were higher for their studets whe takig the AA-MAS, affectig their quality of istructio ad their studets' ability to achieve above proficiet scores i readig ad math i We were also uable to lear what types of itervetio teachers used to improve their istructio, how teachers moitored studet progress, which scietific evidece Fxceptioal Childre 69

13 was used to measure progress, ad what effect the quality of teachig may have had o their studets' performace scores. Further, this study cocers oe state's implemetatio of a AA-MAS. The extet to which the fidigs of this study are geeralizable to other states is ukow. However, policy makers ad related persoel i other states may fid this iformatio of use i costructig or adjustig their programs. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Because the AA-MAS assiged a majority of studets to high proficiecy levels for two cosecutive academic years, it brigs ito questio the appropriateess ad validity of the questio items: They do ot seem to accurately differetiate betwee studet ability levels. Future research should evaluate assessmet items used i the AA- MAS usig tools such as the Test Accessibility ad Modificatio Ivetory (TAMI; Beddow, Kettler, & Elliott, 2008), ifiueced by uiversal desig (e.g., Elliott, Kurz, Beddow, & Frey, 2009), test accessibility (e.g., Johstoe, Thurlow, Moore, & Altma, 2006), cogitive load theory (e.g., Clark, Nguye, & Sweller, 2006; Elliott et al., 2009), ad fairess. TAMI is used to ehace accessibility ad improve measuremet validity of test items ad is especially meat for assessmets desiged for the AA-MAS populatio. Future research should also examie teachers' decisiomakig process whe assigig a studet to the AA-MAS ad whether stadards-based IEPs are used ad, if so, how studet progress is beig moitored. Future research should... examie teachers' decisio-makig process whe assigig a studet to the AA-MAS ad whether stadards-hased IEPs are used ad, if so, how studet progress is beig moitored. Curriculum-based measuremet (CBM) is of particular iterest give its strog research base. Recetly, Fuchs, Seethaler, Fuchs, ad Hamlett (2008) proposed CBM as meetig the requiremets for determiig eligibility uder the 2% regulatio: That is, CBM progress moitorig ca be used to provide the ecessary database o (a) whether grade-level proficiecy is expected, (b) whether appropriate istructio has bee provided, ad (c) whether progress i respose to that istructio is appropriate. The effectiveess of CBM istructio/respose to itervetio is reflected i AA-MAS performace. Future research should ivestigate the cosequetial validity of this itervetio. If studets do't respod to those itervetios, research should examie why they fail to respod. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE PRACTICE Most importatly, the preset study highlights challeges for state policy makers i cosiderig how to refie the eligibility of studets with disabilities to take the AA-MAS ad i idetifyig studets who might beefit most from these assessmets. The state we studied should refie its eligibility guidelies for participatio i the AA- AAS ad AA-MAS. If participatio guidelies are ot well defied, studets may be cotiually assiged to iappropriate test types. First, disability category should be cosidered whe decidig which studets belog to the 1% of studets expected to have sigificat cogitive disabilities. For example, studets whose primary disability is LD, EBD, or OHI are ot cogitively impaired ad should be excluded from the AA-AAS. The rules for AA-AAS eligibility should be refied to help teachers i their decisios about their studets with sigificat cogitive disabilities. Secod, whe teachers decide which test type to assig their studets, they eed clear guidelies of what kid of stadardized tests should be cosidered i tbis decisio ad how may test performaces should be couted (i.e., curriculum-based assessmet, districtwide assessmet, commercially available stadardized assessmet, or statewide assessmet). Third, states should establish guidelies for trasitio of proficiet studets from the AA-MAS to the geeral assessmet. Placemet 70 Fall 2011

14 decisios, by law, must be made aually, ad these decisios should be based o validated assessmets ad stadards-based IEPs. The use of multiple idicators will stregthe such decisios. For example, Domaleski (2009) suggests a profile approach that could be implemeted to take advatage of several data sources. Uder this system, several clusters of performace idicators would be defied {profiles), ay of which would idicate a studet's eligibility to advace to a differet assessmet type. A example of such a profile might be achievig a performace category score of 2 or 3 o the AA-MAS ad also achievig some criterio score o a district assessmet. The developmet of these profiles must be accomplished at the state level,, ad their use must be moitored ad well documeted. Fourth, states should take advatage of the professioal etworkig capabilities of curret techology to eable teachers of studets with disabilities to share experieces, curricular materials, ad approaches ad to provide liks to iformatio o assistive techology, accommodatios, ad data collectio materials for alterate assessmet. A model for this is the web site developed by the Georgia Departmet of Educatio ( ) for teachers of studets who take that state's AA-AAS. Fifth, there should be recogitio of the importace of effort ad teamwork at the local level. States ad LEAs should provide guidace for stregtheig collaboratio amog IEP team members, admiistrators, related service persoel, parets, ad geeral ad special educators. Schools could adopt a philosophy that the whole school is resposible for all studets' success. Fially, the ultimate goals for academic achievemet are madated by state ad federal stadards, but itermediate goals are created by teachers ad others resposible for curriculum, assessmet, ad istructio. Determiig these itermediate goals requires a uderstadig of how studets lear ad represet kowledge. Thus, teachers eed to have a uderstadig of cogitio ad learig differeces. Preservice ad professioal developmet should help teachers uderstad models of leatig so they ca recogize studets' iitial sese-makig strategies. REFERENCES Altma, J, R,, Lazarus, S, S., Tburlow, M. L., Queemoe, R. E, Gutbbert, M., & Gormier, D. G. (2008) survey of states: Activities, chages, ad challeges for special educatio. Mieapolis, MN: Uiversity of Miesota, Natioal Geter o Educatioal Outcomes. Beddow, P A, Kettlet, R. J., & Elliott, S. N. (2008). Test accessibility ad modificatio ivetory (TAMI). Nasbville, TN: Vaderbilt Uiversity. Retrieved from bttp://peabody. vaderbilt.edu/tami.xml Glark, R, Nguye, E, & Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiecy i learig: Evidece-based guidelies to maage cogitive load. Sa Fracisco, GA: Pfeiffer. Domaleski, G. (2009). Operatioal ad accoutability issues. I M. Perie (Ed.), Cosideratios for the Alterate Assessmet based o Modified Achievemet Stadards (AA-MAS): Uderstadig the eligible populatio ad applyig that kowledge to their istructio ad assessmet. A white paper commissioed by the New York Comprehesive Ceter i collaboratio with the New York State Educatio Departmet (pp ). Retrieved from bttps:// /AAMASwbitePaper.pdf Doella, A. (1984). Tbe criterio of tbe least dagerous assumptio. Behavior Disorders, 9, Elliott, S. N., Kurz, A., Beddow, R, & Frey, J. (2009, February). Cogitive load theory ad uiversal desig priciples: Applicatios to test item developmet. Raper preseted at tbe Natioal Associatio of Scbool Psycbologists (NASR) Aual Govetio, Bosto, MA. Filbi, J. (2008). Lessosfiomthe iitial peer review of alterate assessmets based o modified achievemet stadards. Wasbigto, DG: U.S. Departmet of Educatio, Office of Elemetary ad Secodary Educatio Studet Acbievemet ad Scbool Accoutability Program. Retrieved from bttp:// /ceo/aamas/2percetlessosaamas.pdf Fucbs, L., Seetbaler R M., Fucbs, D., & Hamlett, G. L. (2008). Usig curriculum-based measuremet to idetify tbe 2% populatio. Joumal of Disability Policy Studies, 19, doi: / Georgia Departmet of Educatio. ( ). Georgia Performace Stadards (GPS) for studets with sigificat cogitive disabilities. Retrieved from bttp://gadoe.georgiastadards.org/impairmet.aspx Jobstoe, G., Tburlow, M., Moore, M., & Altma, J. (2006). Usig systematic item selectio to improve uiversal desig of assessmets (Rolicy Directios 18). Mieapolis, MN: Uiversity of Miesota, Natioal Geter o Educatioal Outcomes. Exceptioal Childre 71

15 Joseph, L. M., & Eveleigh, E. L. (2009). A review of the effects of self-moitorig o readig performace of studets with disabilities. The Joural of Special Educatio, 20, Kleiert, H., & Thurlow, M. (2001). A itroductio to alterate assessmet. I H. Kleiert & J. Kears (Eds.), Alterate assessmet: Measurig outcomes ad supports for studets with disabilities. Baltimore, MD: Paul Brookes. ABOUT THE AUTHORS Lazarus, S. S., Thompso, S. J., & Thurlow, M. L. (2006). How studets access accommodatios i assessmet ad istructio: Results of a survey of special edu- HYUN-JEONG CHO (Kasas CE,C), Research catio teachers (Issue Brief 7). College Park, MD: Associate; ad NEAL KINGSTON (Kasas Uiversity of Marylad, Educatioal Policy Reform Research Istitute. tioal Testig ad Evaluatio, Uiversity of CEC), Associate Professor, Ceter for Educa- NCLB Regulatios, 34 C.ER. 200 et seq. (2007). Kasas, Lawrece. No Child Left Behid Act of 2001, 20 U.S.C et seq. (2006). U.S. Departmet of Educatio. (2007, July 20), Modified academic achievemet stadards: No-regulatory guidace. Washigto, DG: Office of Elemetary ad Secodary Educatio, U.S. Departmet of Educatio. Retrieved from /guid/clb/twopercet.doc Pellegrio, J. W., Chudowsky, N. J., & Glaser, R. Correspodece cocerig this article should be (Eds.). (2001). Kowig what studets kow: The sciece addressed to Hyu-Jeog Cho, Ceter for Educatioal Testig ad Evaluatio, Uiversity of ad desig of educatioal assessmet. Washigto, DC: Natioal Academy Press. Kasas, 1122 West Campus Road, Room 730, Thurlow, M. L. (2008). Assessmet ad istructioal implicatios of the alterate assessmet based o modified academic achievemet stadards (AA-MAS). Jour- Lawrece, KS ( chohj@ku.edu). al of Disability Policy Studies, 19, doi:10 The authors would like to ackowledge Rebecca.1177/ Fiey, Dr. Martha Thurlow, Gretche Aderso, U.S. Departmet of Educatio. (2005). Raisig ad Mickey Waxma for their assistace. achievemet: Alterate assessmets for studets with disabilities. Retrieved from Mauscript received March 2010; accepted July /policy/elsec/guid/raisig/alt-assess-log.html Fall 2011

16 Copyright of Exceptioal Childre is the property of Coucil for Exceptioal Childre ad its cotet may ot be copied or ed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express writte permissio. However, users may prit, dowload, or articles for idividual use.

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