Towards an Evolutionary Computational Approach to Articulatory Vocal Synthesis with PRAAT

Transcription

1 Towards an Evolutionary Computational Approach to Articulatory Vocal Synthesis with PRAAT Jared Drayton and Eduardo Miranda Interdisciplinary Centre for Computer Music Research, Plymouth University, UK Abstract. This paper presents our current work into developing an evolutionary computing approach to articulatory speech synthesis. Specifically, we implement genetic algorithms to find optimised parameter combinations for the re-synthesis of a vowel using the articulatory synthesiser PRAAT. Our framework analyses the target sound using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to obtain formant information, which is then harnessed in a fitness function applied to a real valued genetic algorithm using a generation size of 75 sounds over 50 generations. In this paper, we present three differently configured genetic algorithms (GAs) and offer a comparison of their suitability for elevating the average fitness of the re-synthesised sounds. Keywords: Articulatory Vocal Synthesis, Vocal Synthesis, Evolutionary Computing, Speech, PRAAT, Genetic Algorithms 1 Introduction Computing technology has advanced at a rapid frequency over the last eighty years. As computers are becoming more ubiquitous in our everyday lives, the need to communicate with our technology is increasing. Speech synthesis is the artificial production of human speech and features in an increasing amount of our digital devices. We can see the use of speech synthesis in a wide span of technologies, ranging from car GPS navigation to video games. Currently, there are three main approaches to artificially producing speech: concatenative synthesis, formant synthesis and articulatory synthesis. Out of these three, concatenative synthesis is the approach that dominates. Concatenative speech synthesis is a sound synthesis approach where small sound units of pre-recorded speech are selected from a database, and sequenced together to produce a target sound or sound sequence. This approach currently offers the highest amount of intelligibility and naturalness when compared to the other techniques available. Because the technique relies on the arranging of sound recordings from human speakers, it bypasses some of the drawbacks inherent in other methods; for example, the unnatural timbre of formant synthesis,

2 or an imperfect physical model used in articulatory synthesis. However, there are a number of limitations on concatenative synthesis systems that result from its reliance on pre-recorded speech. The corpus of sounds that concatenative synthesis relies on is finite, and the segments themselves cannot be modified extensively without negatively impacting the quality and naturalness of the sound. This severely limits the capacity to modify prosody in relation to the text given. Therefore, to account for different types of prosody, it must be accounted for in the creation of the original corpus. Articulatory synthesis is widely considered to have the biggest potential out of all current speech synthesis techniques [1]. However, as it stands, articulatory speech synthesis is largely unexploited and undeveloped. This is largely attributed to the difficulty of producing a robust articulatory Text To Speech (TTS) system that can perform on a par with existing concatenative solutions. This is due to the highly complex and non-linear relationship between parameters and the resultant sound. There have been a number of different approaches attempted for extracting vocal tract area functions, or articulatory movements. These range from using methods of imaging the vocal apparatus during speech (using machines such as an X-Ray [2] or MRI [3]) to attaching sensors to the articulators themselves. Inversion of parameters from the original audio has also been attempted [4]. In this paper we present a framework for developing an evolutionary computing approach to articulatory speech synthesis together with some initial results. The primary motivation for this research is to explore approaches to an automatic system of obtaining vocal tract area functions from recorded speech data. This is highly desirable in furthering the field of articulatory synthesis and the field of speech synthesis in general. 2 Background 2.1 Articulatory Synthesis Articulatory synthesis is a physical modelling approach to sound synthesis. These physical models emulate the physiology of the human vocal apparatus. They simulate how air exhaled from the lungs is modified by the glottis and larynx, then propagated through the vocal tract and further modified by the articulators such as the tongue and lips. Control of this synthesis method is achieved by passing numerical values to parameters that correspond to individual muscles or muscles groupings. Therefore, any set of parameter values can be thought of as describing an articulatory configuration or articulatory movement i.e. describing a vocal area tract function. There are a number of different approaches when it comes to the design of articulatory synthesisers. Some synthesisers favour the use of a simplified periodic signal in place of physically modelling the larynx. This allows the fundamental frequency or pitch to be defined manually, and decrease the complexity of the model. By not attempting to simulate the lungs and larynx, the realism in terms

3 Fig. 1. Mid-Sagittal View of the Human Vocal Apparatus of phonetic quality is reduced. Breathing patterns also have a great impact on prosody, and are also essential for accurately modelling of fricatives and plosive speech sounds. 2.2 Evolutionary Computation Within the field of evolutionary computing, there is a group of heuristic search techniques known as evolutionary algorithms that draw inspiration from the neodarwinian paradigm of evolution and survival of the fittest. These evolutionary algorithms work on an iterative process of generating solutions and testing their fitness and suitability using a fitness funtion, then combining genetic material from the fittest candidates. This is done by using genetic operators such as selection, crossover and mutation. Genetic Algorithms were developed by John Holland and put forward in the seminal text Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems [5]. They have been employed in a variety of different optimisation tasks [6], especially in tasks where the search space is large and not well understood. The approach of using evolutionary computing for non-linear sound synthesis applications is not a new concept, and has been explored by a number of researchers. Several different EC techniques are given in Evolutionary Computer Music [7] for musical applications, with chapters 5-7 specifically implementing GA s. Parameter matching with Frequency Modulation (FM) synthesis has also been explored [8], [9].

4 3 Methods The articulatory synthesiser used in this project is the PRAAT articulatory synthesiser [10]. PRAAT is a multi-functional software package with tools for a large range of speech analysis and synthesis tasks developed by Paul Boersma and David Weenink [11]. Whilst having a fully-fledged graphical user interface, PRAAT also provides the ability to use its own scripting language, allowing the majority of operations to be executed autonomously. This functionality allows a genetic algorithm to be implemented in conjunction with PRAAT without a great deal of retrofitting that would be required with other available synthesisers such as VTDemo or Vocal Tract Lab 2. Additionally the provided analysis tools for speech make the integration of an appropriate fitness function highly convenient, and minimises the need for using external tools. The physical model constraints are configured to use an adult male speaker. Control of the synthesiser is done by passing a configuration file that contains a list of all parameters for the model. The model used in PRAAT has 29 parameters that can be specified. Therefore the encoding approach taken in this GA is a real value representation, with each individual stored as a vector of 28 numbers. Each number of the vector represents a parameter and can take any value in the range -1 x 1. Where p 1 = Interarytenoid, p 2 = Cricothyroid, p 3 = Vocalis, p 4 = Thyroarytenoid etc. [ p1 p 2 p 3 p 4... p n ] Therefore a randomly generated individual may be initialised with parameter values such as Interarytenoid = 0.82, Cricothyroid = -0.2, Vocalis = -0.48, Thyroarytenoid = 0.1 etc. [ 0.82, 0.2, 0.48, pn ] Only one parameter uses prior knowledge. The lungs are set to a predefined value of 0.15 at the beginning of the articulation, then 0.0 at 0.1 seconds. PRAAT automatically interpolates values between these two discrete settings. The reasoning behind this choice is that unlike the other parameters, the lungs parameter needs to be changed over time to provide energy or excitation of the vocal folds necessary for phonation. This parameter is kept the same for every individual generated and is not altered by any GA operations, hence the reason individuals are represented as vectors with a length of 28, and not 29. The fitness function is implemented by using a FFT for analysis of features of the target sound. Four frequencies are extracted from each sound. The first is the fundamental frequency or pitch of the sound. The next three frequencies are the first three formants produced. This analysis is performed on the target vowel sound, and then subsequently performed on each individual sound in every generation. Fitness is based on the differences between the four frequencies in the target sound, and the respective frequencies in each individual. A penalty is introduced for each formant that is not present in the candidate s solution, which replaces the difference in frequency with a large arbitrary value (10,000).

5 The natural state of the fitness function in this application is a minimisation function, as the goal is to minimise the differences between features of two sounds rather than maximise some sort of profit. It is therefore necessary to scale the fitness for each individual in order to implement a fitness proportional selection scheme. This is achieved through dividing one by each candidate s fitness. Because of the inherent use of stochastic processes in Genetic Algorithms, any analysis of results must take this into account. Each experiment is run multiple times to ensure that there is no bias due to the stochastic process. Pseudorandom numbers are used for any stochastic processes and are provided by the built-in random function in Python, which uses a Mersenne twist algorithm. Mutation of allele values is done using a Gaussian distribution where µ = 0 and σ = Any mutation that results in allele values outside of the constraints -1 x 1 are rounded to 1.0 or Results Three differently configured genetic algorithms are presented, with the results displayed using a performance graph, as shown in Fig.2, 3 and 4. These graphs show the average fitness of the population at every generation, and the fitness of the best candidate from each population at every generation. All experiments are carried out with the same size populations and number of generations, with number of generations set to 50 and a population size of 75. The generation at 0 on each performance graph is the initial randomly generated population without having any genetic operations performed. This would be a random voice configuration. 4.1 Experiment 1 - Elitism Operator The first run is not strictly a genetic algorithm, as there is no exchange of genetic material between individuals generated in each population. It is more akin to a hybrid parallel evolutionary strategy. This first experiment was a proof of concept to demonstrate the ability that the fitness function worked as it should, and that it could differentiate. As displayed in Fig.2, the results of this show the average fitness of each population steadily increasing. This exploratory measure confirms the basic viability and behaviour in this domain. 4.2 Experiment 2 - Fitness Proportional Selection with One Point Crossover This experiment sees the introduction of fitness proportional selection (FPS), combined with one point crossover for exchange of genetic material between candidate solutions. An example of one point crossover is shown below. Two parent candidates are selected by making two calls to the FPS function which returns a candidate for each call. A random crossover point is generated and used to combine values

6 Fig. 2. Performance Graph of Using Only an Elitism Operator from both parents before and after this point. For this example a shortened range of 10 parameters is used. P arent1 [ 0.25, 0.32, 0.97, 0.6, 0.23, 0.5, 0.31, 0.89, 0.4, 0.93 ] P arent2 [ 0.4, 0.24, 0.64, 0.35, 0.51, 0.7, 0.93, 0.19, 0.83, 0.18 ] After one point crossover with a value of three, an offspring or child candidate is created by combining the first three allele values from parent 1 and then the last seven values from parent 2. This then creates a new solution containing genetic material from both parent candidates. Offspring [ 0.25, 0.32, 0.97, 0.35, 0.51, 0.7, 0.93, 0.19, 0.83, 0.18 ] This process if then repeated until a new population has been generated. In Fig.3, it shows the average fitness converges much quicker than when using just elitism. However there is stagnation of genetic diversity from around the 23rd generation where both the average fitness and best candidate of each generation shows very little change. 4.3 Experiment 3 - Fitness Proportional Selection with One Point Crossover and Mutation Here, the FPS operator is kept for selection. A mutation operator is also implemented with each allele value having a probability of 0.1 to mutate.

7 Fig. 3. Performance Graph Using Fitness Proportional Selection and One Point Crossover As it can be observed in Fig.4 there is a rapid improvement in average fitness, after which it settles down into smaller fluctuations. The fitness of the best candidate at each point improves more slowly early on, but more consistently. The voice model is clearly converging towards the target sound. 5 Discussions 5.1 Observations It is clear that the elitism operator - because there is no combination of candidates - causes the average of each population to move steadily towards the target, but will not generate new candidates outside of a random search. Removing the elitism operator and replacing it with a fitness proportional selection operator, as done in Experiment 2, causes the rapid increase in the optimisation of the average population but leads to a stagnation of genetic diversity. With the incorporation of the mutation operator in experiment 3, the average fitness fluctuated more than in the previous experiments, but this also produced the best results with respect to the fittest candidate in each population. In general GAs seem to be able to optimise the PRAAT parameters.

8 Fig. 4. Performance graph using Fitness Proportional Selection, One Point Crossover and Mutation operators. 5.2 Future Work As this is an early work in progress there are several areas identified for extensive improvement and future research, these will be focused on the following. Fitness Function: The fitness function is a crucial aspect of any genetic algorithm. This is especially true when using a multimodal one. As it is the only metric that can guide the search process, it is therefore imperative that it accurately represents the suitability of a candidate solution. If the fitness of an individual is miss-represented, then regions of the search space may be exploited that are not conducive to finding good solutions. A number of shortcomings are clear with the current fitness function. For example the current analysis takes a FFT using a window size equal to the entire length of the sound. This does not account for things such as vocal breaks, intensity of phonation, modulation of pitch etc. Genetic Operator Additions: The fitness proportional selection scheme, when applied to other optimisation tasks, has been found to be in certain cases an inferior operator. Therefore, a Rank-Based Selection to bring a change in selection pressure will be implemented. Trials with different crossover operators will also be explored, such as uniform crossover and two point crossover. Genetic Algorithm Parameters: The relationship between number of generations, population size, and mutation rate will all have a large impact

9 on convergence and population diversity. As the synthesis of each individual is computationally expensive, minimising the total number of individuals in a run is desirable. Further experiments with different mutation rates, population sizes and number of generations need to be taken to ascertain optimal values. To conclude, our results indicate that GAs are a viable method of optimisation for the parameters of PRAAT, and therefore articulatory synthesis. A substantial number of improvements have been identified, which when implemented may improve the robustness and effectiveness of the genetic algorithm for use in mapping sounds to articulatory configurations. References 1. Shadle, C., Damper, R.: Prospects for articulatory synthesis: A position paper. In: 4th ISCA Tutorial and Research Workshop. (2002) 2. Schroeter, J., Sondhi, M.: Techniques for estimating vocal-tract shapes from the speech signal. IEEE Transactions on Speech and Audio Processing 2(1) (1994) Kim, Y.c., Kim, J., Proctor, M., Toutios, A., Nayak, K., Lee, S., Narayanan, S.: Toward Automatic Vocal Tract Area Function Estimation from Accelerated Threedimensional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. In: ISCA Workshop on Speech Production in Automatic Speech Recognition, Lyon, France (2013) Busset, J., Laprie, Y., Cnrs, L., Botanique, J.: Acoustic-to-articulatory inversion by analysis-by-synthesis using cepstral coefficients. In: ICA - 21st International Congress on Acoustics. Volume (2013) 5. Holland, J.H.: Adaptation in natural and artificial systems: An introductory analysis with applications to biology, control, and artificial intelligence. U Michigan Press (1975) 6. Goldberg, D.E., Others: Genetic algorithms in search, optimization, and machine learning. Volume 412. Addison-wesley Reading Menlo Park (1989) 7. Miranda, E.R., Al Biles, J.: Evolutionary computer music. Springer (2007) 8. Horner, A., Beauchamp, J., Haken, L.: Machine tongues XVI: Genetic algorithms and their application to FM matching synthesis. Computer Music Journal (1993) Mitchell, T.J.: An exploration of evolutionary computation applied to frequency modulation audio synthesis parameter optimisation. PhD thesis, University of the West of England (2010) 10. Boersma, P.: Praat, a system for doing phonetics by computer. Glot international 5(9/10) (2001) Boersma, P.: Functional phonology: Formalizing the interactions between articulatory and perceptual drives. Holland Academic Graphics/IFOTT (1998)