Recap: Some Basics of Generative Grammar
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1 LIN5317 A, Fall 2015 Dennis Ott Week 1 I. Knowledge of language Recap: Some Basics of Generative Grammar We use words to construct phrases and sentences, systematic pairings of sound/sign properties on the one hand and meaning properties on the other. words sentences sound/sign meaning Generative Grammar: explicit theory of an idealized speaker-hearer s systematic and productive knowledge of sound/sign-meaning pairs, the speaker s I-language. John likes Mary. Peter thinks [John likes Mary]. Bill said [Peter thinks [John likes Mary]]. Amanda reckoned [Bill said [Peter thinks [John likes Mary]]]. ( and so on, ad infinitum) Note that we are attempting to construct a model of knowledge (competence), not a model of how this knowledge is put to use (performance). (1) a. John likes himself. b. *Himself likes John. c. *John s mother likes himself. (3) a. John seems to be sleeping. b. It seems that John is sleeping. c. John tries to be charming. d. *It tries that John is charming. (2) a. The man who is 1 tall is 2 happy. b. Is 2 the man who is tall _ happy? c. *Is 1 the man who _ tall is happy? (4) a. John likes apples. b. What does John like _? c. John likes oranges and apples. d. *What does John like oranges and _? Poverty of Stimulus: facts like the above (and virtually all knowledge of language) are massively underdetermined by the evidence presented to the learner. Universal Grammar is a name for the cognitive equipment responsible for the fact that humans, but not apes or hamsters or rocks, reflexively acquire an I-language (under normal conditions). 1
2 Principles specified by UG define the range of possible I-languages. Example (illustrated by (2)): rules are sensitive to structure, not to linear order. Parameters specified by UG account for language variation. Examples: (5) null subjects ( pro-drop ) a. Io parlo. / Parlo. [Italian] b. Je parle. / *Parle. [French] I speak speak c. I speak. / *Speak. I speak. (6) word order ( head-directionality ) a. John [read the book]. (English: VO) b. Hasan kitabi okudu. (Turkish: OV) Hasan book read Hasan read the book. II. Categories and the Lexicon Lexical categories (content words) nouns (N): girl, honesty, destruction, John, she, themselves, o appear with determiners, take case endings, inflect for number, verbs (V): run, arrive, see, give, o inflect for tense/aspect, occur with auxiliaries, select subjects/objects, adjectives (A): big, proud, good, elevated, o appear between determiners and nouns, are gradable, adverbs (Adv): yesterday, reluctantly, almost, presumably, o everything else (more or less) Functional categories (the grammatical glue ) pre-/postpositions (P): to, in, of, under, during, determiners (D): every, most, three, my, which, conjunctions (Conj): and, or, neither nor, either or complementizers (C): that, for, if, whether tense/aspect markers (T): has, is, did, will, can, to, sentential negation (Neg): not (7) a. England: Prime Minister charged, arrested b. In England, the Prime Minister was charged and arrested. A lexical item is a bundle of phonological, semantic, and morphosyntactic features. The latter comprise categorical features (N, V, C, ), φ-features (person, number, gender, ), among others, depending on category and language. o dog [N,-pl,-pronoun,-anaphor, ] vs. dogs [N,+pl,-pronoun,-anaphor, ] o he [N,masc,-pl,+pronoun,-anaphor, ] vs. himself [N,masc,-pl,-pronoun,+anaphor, ] o the [D,±pl,+def, ] vs. a [D,-pl,-def, ] These intrinsic features are defined in an LI s lexical entry, in the Lexicon. We ignore phonological/semantic features, which don t play a role in syntactic computation. 2
3 Predicates combine with one or more arguments to form propositions: (8) a. Mary hit Peter. = hit(mary, Peter) b. Mary said that Peter is dumb. = say(mary, that Peter is dumb) c. Mary gave a book to John. = give(mary, a book, to John) The lexical entries of categories selecting other elements in the sentence (chiefly: verbs) must contain subcategorization frames, specifying their valency or argument structure. (9) intransitive verbs (valency 1) a. Mary smiles. smile: [V, NP ] b. *Mary smiles Peter. c. *[That the Redblacks lost the game] smiles. d. [That the Redblacks lost the game] sucks. suck: [V, {NP/CP} ] (10) transitive verbs (valency 2) a. Mary hit Peter. hit: [V, NP NP] b. *Mary hit. c. *Mary said. say: [V, NP CP] d. *Mary said Peter. e. Mary said [that Peter is dumb]. (11) ditransitive verbs (valency 3) a. Mary gave John a book. give: [V, NP NP {NP/PP}] b. Mary gave a book to John. c. *Mary gave John. d. *Mary gave John [that Peter is dumb]. In addition, subcategorization frames must contain idiosyncratic information about arguments. (12) a. John relies {on/*in} Mary. rely: [V, NP PP on ] b. Peter hilft {ihm/*ihn}. [German] helfen: [V, NP NP dat ] Peter helps {him dat /*him acc } III. Constituency The words in a sentence are not beads on a string: words form groups (constituents) that function as units in syntactic computation. (C) Constituent (operational definition) A group of words that function together as a unit. (13) a. [The man] ran into the store. b. [The man from Italy] ran into the store. c. [The man from Italy who left his wife last year] ran into the store. d. [He] ran into the store. 3
4 (14) a. John didn t visit his mom on her birthday, but Peter did [visit his mom on her birthday]. b. John read three books about physics, and Peter read five [books about physics]. (15) a. Who ran into the store? The man. b. What did he do? Ran into the store. c. Where did he run? Into the store. (16) a. John bought [this brandnew car]. b. It was [this brandnew car] that John bought. c. [This brandnew car] was bought by John. (17) a. It bothered Peter [that Mary was snoring]. b. [That Mary was snoring] bothered Peter. (P) Phrase (intuitive definition) A complete constituent of an identifiable category. (H) Head (intuitive definition) The head of a phrase P is the word that gives P its category. Major phrasal types noun phrases (NPs, for now) [ NP John], [ NP that guy], [ NP (those) cats] prepositional phrases (PPs) [ PP to [ NP John]], [ PP for [ NP that guy]], [ PP with [ NP (those) cats]] verb phrases (VPs) [ VP send [ NP John] [ NP a letter]], [ VP wait [ PP for [ NP that guy]]], [ VP like [ NP cats]] adjective phrases (AdjPs) [ AdjP (very) yellow], [ AdjP (much) bigger], [ AdjP (almost) cat-like] adverb phrases (AdvPs) [ AdVP (very) frequently], [ AdvP (almost) certainly], [ AdvP last night] clauses (TPs, tense phrases ) [ TP Mary will [ VP send [ NP John] [ NP a letter]]] [ TP John [ VP likes [ NP cats]]] embedded clauses (CPs, complementizer phrases ) (I think) [ CP that [ TP Mary will [ VP send [ NP John] [ NP a letter]]]] (I wonder) [ CP if [ TP John s [ VP like [ NP cats]]]] Recursion Phrase structure is recursive: phrases contain other phrases, including phrases of the same type. (18) a. [ NP [ NP this girl s [ NP father s]] [friend [ PP from [ NP a small town]]]] b. [ CP if [ TP Bill [ VP thinks [ CP that [ TP Mary will [ VP send [ NP John] [ NP a letter]]]]]]] 4
5 Modification AdjPs and PPs (a.o.) can modify NPs, and AdvPs and PPs (a.o.) can modify VPs. Adding modifiers creates larger phrases of the same type, hence with the same distribution. (19) [ NP cats] [ NP [ AdjP very stupid] [ NP cats]] [ NP [ NP [ AdjP very stupid] [ NP cats]] [ PP from Italy]] (20) [ VP visit [ NP my mom]] [ VP visit [ NP my mom]] [ PP on her birthday]] [ VP frequently [ VP visit [ NP my mom]] [ PP on her birthday]] Attachment ambiguity Sentences can be associated with more than one constituent structure, in which case they are said to be structurally ambiguous. (21) The senator called the businessman from Vancouver. a. the phone call was made from Vancouver (PP modifies VP) [ VP [ VP called [ NP the businessman] [ PP from Vancouver]]] b. the businessman is from Vancouver (PP modifies object NP) [ VP called [ NP the businessman from Vancouver]] c. *the senator is from Vancouver à modification is local! (Carnie s Principle of Modification, p. 77) IV. Computing constituency: two approaches 1. Phrase-structure grammar (simplified) Production rules 1. VP à V (NP) ({NP/CP}) (PP) 2. PP à P NP 3. NP à (D) N (PP) 4. V à {wait/kiss/give } 5. D à {the/a/those/ } 6. N à {man/she/john/ } 7. P à {from/on/with/ } Derivation a. VP à V PP h. PP à P NP b. V à wait i. P à from c. PP à P NP j. NP à N d. P à for k. N à Italy e. NP à D N PP f. D à the g. N à man 2. Set-formation (Merge) 1. Merge(from,Italy) = {from Italy} (= PP) 2. Merge(man,{from Italy}) = {man,{from,italy}} 3. Merge(the,{man,{from,Italy}}) = {the,{man,{from,italy}}} (= NP) 4. Merge(for,{the,{man,{from,Italy}}}) = {for,{the,{man,{from,italy}}}} (= PP) 5. Merge(wait,{for,{the,{man,{from,Italy}}}}) = {wait,{for,{the,{man,{from,italy}}}}} (= VP) 5
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