Sociolinguistics. 1. What is Sociolinguistics?

Transcription

1 Sociolinguistics Broadly speaking anthropology is the study of mankind and one of its sections is studying the cultural aspect. When talking about cultural aspect we come to one of the major section-language. Therefore, the scientific study of language i.e. linguistics becomes one of an important branch of cultural anthropology. 1. What is Sociolinguistics? Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and social structures in which the users of language live. It studies the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations and context, on the way language is used. It is the field of study which assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behavior, some of which are properly or clearly linguistics. Sociolinguistics can be broadly defined as that branch of linguistics which studies those properties of language which must be explained in social terms. Social explanation within linguistics fall within two categories- first, it involves looking at large-scale social patterning of variation and change. This large scale study is sometimes called correlational sociolinguistics, variation studies, modern urban dialectology or sociolinguistics proper. The second way in which language is socially explained looks at small-scale speech situations. Small scale situational study is called pragmatics, conversation analysis, the ethnography of communication, discourse analysis, social semiotics etc. 2. Origin of Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics as an academic discipline only developed within the last 50 years. Even though an interest in the social aspects of language has been there for long, formal study has been done very recently. The word sociolinguistics was apparently already coined in 1939 in the title of an article by Thomas C. Hodson, Sociolinguistics in India in Man in India. When sociolinguistics became popularized as a field of study in the late 1960 s, there were two labels, firstsociolinguistics and second- sociology of language- for the same phenomenon, the study of the intersection and interaction of language and society, and these two terms were used interchangeably. 3. Sociolinguistics and Anthropology Language is the core of human culture- anthropologists have always put it at the centre of their agenda. So too have many linguists. The amalgam of the two disciplines, anthropological linguistics, aims to document and examine how language mirrors social structure and culture-specific thought patterns. Anthropological linguistics is that sub-field of linguistics which is concerned with the place of language in its wider social and cultural context, its role in forging and sustaining cultural practices and social structures. As such, it may seen to overlap with another sub-field with similar domain called sociolinguistics. 4. Language and Culture The relationship between language and culture is deeply rooted. Language is used to maintain and convey culture and cultural ties.

2 The term culture is used differently by different anthropologists. All definitions of culture agree that language is an important part of culture. Culture is a complex entity which comprises a set of symbolic systems, including knowledge, norms, values, beliefs, language, art and customs, as well as habits and skills learned by individuals as members of a given society. 5. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has changed the way many people look at the relationship between language, thought and cultural perception of reality. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has strong roots in linguistic relativity and determinism of Von Humboldt. According to Humboldt languages differ from one another; thought and language are inseparable; and, therefore, each speech community embodies a distinct world-view. Benjamin Whorf extended this doctrine of linguistic determinism to describe the roles of language and thought in human development. As Sapir-Whorf argues, different thoughts are brought about by the use of different forms of language. One is limited by the language used to express one s ideas. Different languages will create different limitations; therefore people who share a culture but speak different languages will have different world views. The Whorfian Hypothesis can therefore be summarized as follows (Gumperz and Levinson 25): (1) Different languages utilize different semantic representation systems which are informationally non-equivalent (at least in the sense that they employ different lexical concepts); (2) Semantic representations determine aspects of conceptual representations; (3) Users of different languages utilize different conceptual representations. Linguists and anthropologists have been concerned with the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis and the implications that surround the claim made by Sapir in 1928 and continue to look for ways to prove or disprove the idea that language directly influences the way reality is perceived. 6. Speech Community The term speech community is widely used by sociolinguists to refer to a community based on language. All the activities of man are born out of close adjustments among individuals which we call society and this adjustment in turn is based upon language. The speech community therefore is the most important of social group. Speech communities differ greatly in size. The most important differences of speech communities are due to differences in the density of communication. The main types of speech in a complex speech-community can be roughly divided into five groups: 1. Literary Standard This is used in the most formal discourse and in writing. 2. Colloquial Standard It is the speech of the privileged class. 3. Provincial Standard It is very close to colloquial standard but differs slightly from province to province. In the U.S. it is used by middle class sections of the society.

3 4. Sub Standard It is spoken in European countries by the lower middle class and in U.S by almost everyone except the privileged and middle class people and differs topographically without intense local difference. 5. Local Dialect It is spoken by the least privileged class. In Switzerland it is also used as a domestic language by other classes. It differs from village to village. 7. Varieties of Speech 1. Digglosia The term Digglosia was introduced first into English language literature by Charles Ferguson. In places like Greece, Arabic speaking world, German speaking Switzerland and the island of Haiti, there are two distinct varieties of language. The two varieties are called high and low or standard and vernacular. Diglossia is a particular form of language standardization in which two languages exist side by side and both the distinct varieties are assigned social functions. Though the functions of the two varieties varies from community to community, the high varieties is used for sermons, political speeches, university lectures etc. and the low variety is used among family, friends etc. 2. Pidgin There is yet another way in which different varieties may be mixed with each other by a process in which a variety is form out of two existing ones. This process of variety synthesis take a number of different forms. By far the most important manifestation is the process called pidgindisation where pidgin languages are created. This variety is created specially for practical and immediate purposes to communicate between members of different communities which would not have a common language. A pidgin is a new language which develops in situations where speakers of different languages need to communicate but do not share a common language. Once a stable pidgin has emerged, it is generally learned as a second language and used for communication among people who speak different languages. Example is Nigerian Pidgin. 3. Creole A pidgin which has acquired native speaker is called creole language or creole. When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it becomes the mother tongue of a community, it is called a creole. Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has taken most of its vocabulary from another language, the lexifier, but has its own unique grammatical rules. Examples are Jamaican Creole and Hawaii Creole English. The only difference between creole and other languages lies in its origin. Creole is acquired through a process called creolisation and gradually loses its identity through decreolisation. 8. Languages in Contact 1. Bilingualism The concept of bilingualism has become wider since the beginning of the century. Bilingualism was long regarded as the equal mastery of two languages. Bloomfield considered bilingualism as the native-like control of two languages, this was again broadened by Haugen who says that bilingualism is the ability to produce complete meaningful utterances in

4 the other language. Bilingualism refers to the state of a linguistic community in which two languages are in contact with the results that two codes can be used in the same interaction. It is considered as the alternate use of two or more languages by the same individual. 9. Types of Bilingualism 1. Co-ordinate bilingualism A coordinate bilingual acquires the two languages in different contexts (e.g., at home and at school), so the words of the two languages belong to separate and independent systems. In co-ordinate bilingualism, the person learns the language in separate environments and the words of two languages are kept separate with each word having its own specific meaning. An example would be a person whose first language is English and then learns French in school. 2. Compound bilingual A compound bilingual is an individual who learns two languages in the same environment so that he/she acquires one notion with two verbal expressions. In compound bilingualism the person learns the two languages in the same contexts, where they are used concurrently and there is fused representation of the languages in the brain. For the compound bilingual the languages are interdependent whereas for coordinate bilingual, they are independent. There is another type of bilingualism which is a sub type of co-ordinate bilingualism. In a subcoordinate bilingualism, one language dominates. 10. Code Switching & Code Mixing a) Code Switching Code switching is the inevitable consequence of bilingualism. A person who speaks more than one language tends to choose between the languages according to the circumstances. According to Gumperz Code-switching is the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages belonging to two different grammatical systems or sub-systems (Gumperz, 1982,59) In multilingual society different varieties are used for different purposes. The choice of variety is controlled by social rules. One variety is used at home and another for wider community. In code switching the point at which the languages change corresponds to a point where the situation changes, either on its own or precisely because the language changes. b) Code Mixing Code mixing is another example of how different varieties get mixed together. This happens when a fluent bilingual talking to another fluent bilingual changes language without any change at all in the situation. The purpose of code mixing seems to symbolize a somewhat ambiguous situation for which neither language on its own would be quite right. To get the right effect the speakers balance the two languages against each other- a few words of one language, then a few words of the other, then back to first for a few more words and so on. The changes generally take place more or less randomly as far as subject matter is concerned. Many disciplines are concerned with the aspects of society. Disciplines such as sociology, ethnology, ethnography, social and cultural anthropology studies social life. Sociolinguistics, the recent arrival on the scene of social sciences is

5 an outcome of approaches to language that have gradually evolved in linguistics and all the sciences of society. Sociolinguistics is concerned with a close relationship between language and society. Definition of language and society are not independent, the definition of language would include in it a reference to society. Objectives: The course is intended to provide students with a sound basic coverage of most of the topics dealt within the discipline of sociolinguistics. It assumes very little previous knowledge of linguistics, anthropology or sociology and so should prove to be most useful at the first level course. The topics dealt in this session are designed to encourage further discussions and it may lead to assignments of various kinds. It also aims to provide insights into how social relationships influence language and how language can play a role in shaping social relationships, both in the individual and societal levels. Summary: Many disciplines are concerned with the aspects of society. Disciplines such as sociology, ethnology, ethnography, social and cultural anthropology studies social life. Sociolinguistics as an academic discipline only developed within the last 50 years. Sociolinguistics can be broadly defined as that branch of linguistics which studies those properties of language which must be explained in social terms. It is concerned with a close relationship between language and society, between the uses of language and social structures in which the users of language live. It studies the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations and context, or the way language is used. This is an outcome of approaches to language that have gradually evolved in linguistics and all the sciences of society. Frequently asked questions (FAQs): 1. What is sociolinguistics? Ans. Sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationship between language and society with the goal being better understanding of the structures of language and of how languages function in communication. 2. How is sociolinguistics different from sociology of language? Ans. It is appropriate to make a distinction between sociolinguistics and sociology of language. While sociolinguistics is mainly concerned with an increased and wider description of language and undertaken primarily by linguists and anthropologists, sociology of language is concerned with explanation and prediction of language phenomena in a society at a group level and mainly done by social scientists and few linguists. Hudson (1996, 4) described sociolinguistics as the study of language in relation to society and sociology of language as the study of society in relation to language. 3. What is Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Ans. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis has changed the way many people look at the relationship between language, thought and cultural perception of reality. The statement that language and society are deeply interrelated that it is impossible to understand one without the other, that there is no human society that does not depend on, is not shaped by, and does not itself shape language is at the heart of Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. 4. Summarize the Whorfian hypothesis. Ans. The Whorfian Hypothesis can therefore be summarized as follows:

6 (1) Different languages utilize different semantic representation systems which are informationally non-equivalent (at least in the sense that they employ different lexical concepts); (2) Semantic representations determine aspects of conceptual representations; (3) Users of different languages utilize different conceptual representations. 5. What is Diglossia? Ans. The term Digglosia was introduced first into English language literature by Charles Ferguson. He described the situation found in places such as Greece, Arabic speaking world, German speaking Switzerland and the island of Haiti. In these places there are two distinct varieties of language where one variety is used in formal occasions and the other variety is used in normal circumstances. The two varieties are called high and low or standard and vernacular. 6. What is pidgin and explain the process of pidgindisation? Ans. A pidgin is a new language which develops in situations where speakers of different languages need to communicate but do not share a common language. The vocabulary of a pidgin comes mainly from one particular language. This variety is created specially for practical and immediate purposes to communicate between members of different communities which would not have a common language. Pidgindisation is the process where pidgin languages or pidgins are created. In other words different varieties may be mixed with each other through a process in which a variety is form out of two existing ones. 7. Compare and contrast co-ordinate bilingualism and compound bilingualism. Ans. A co-ordinate bilingual acquires the two languages in different contexts (e.g., home and school), so the words of the two languages belong to separate and independent systems while a compound bilingual is an individual who learns two languages in the same environment so that he/she acquires one notion with two verbal expressions. For the compound bilingual the languages are interdependent whereas for co-ordinate bilingual, they are independent. Quiz: 1. The study of society in relation to language is (i) Sociolinguistics (ii) Sociology of language (iii)ethnography of speaking. 2. It is the speech of the privileged class (i) Literary Standard (ii) Colloquial Standard (iii) Provincial Standard 3. Who coined the term Diglossia? (i) William Labov (ii) Noam Chomsky (iii) Charles Ferguson 4. The equal mastery of two languages is called (i) Diglossia (ii) Code switching (iii) Bilingualism 5. The other name of trade language is (i) Register (ii) Creole (iii) Pidgin 6. A person who learns two languages in the same context is (i) Coordinate bilingual (ii) Compound bilingual (iii) Incipient bilingual 7. A person who learns two languages in the different context is (i) Co-ordinate bilingual (ii) Compound bilingual (iii) Receptive bilingual

7 8. A common term for alternative use of two or more language is (i) Bilingualism (ii) Code mixing (iii) Code switching Glossary 1. Acrolect: Prestige language is called Acrolect 2. Basilect: Basilect is another term for Creole. 3. Bilingualism: The state of a linguistic community in which two languages are in contact with the results that two codes can be used in the same interaction. 4. Code mixing: Code mixing is another example of how different varieties get mixed together. 5. Code Switching: Code mixing is another example of how different varieties get mixed together. This happens when a fluent bilingual talking to another fluent bilingual changes language without any change at all in the situation. 6. Compound Bilingualism: A compound bilingual is an individual who learns two languages in the same environment. 7. Coordinate Bilingualism: A coordinate bilingual acquires the two languages in different contexts. 8. Creole: A pidgin which has acquired native speaker is called creole language or creole. 9. Digglosia: Digglosia is a particular form of language standardization in which two languages exist side by side and both the distinct varieties are assigned social functions. 10. Pidgin: A pidgin is a new language which develops in situations where speakers of different languages need to communicate but do not share a common language. 11. Sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and social structures in which the users of language live. Assignments 1. What is sociolinguistics and how did it originate? 2. Explain the process of pidgindisation. 3. Highlight the relationship between sociolinguistics and anthropology. 4. Point out the different functions of high variety and low variety in a diglossic situation.

8 References: 1. Downes William 1998: Language and society. Cambridge University Press. 2. Fasold W. Ralph.1990: The sociolinguistics of Language. Blackwell Publishing 3. Holmes Janet 2001: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Pearson Education Limited. 4. Hudson R.A. 1980: Sociolinguistics. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 5. Wardhaugh Ronald 2006: An introduction to Sociolinguistics. Blackwell Publishing.