Indo-European and Comparative/Historical Linguistics (Introductory Circus) II. Speech sounds
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1 Indo-European and Comparative/Historical Linguistics (Introductory Circus) II. Speech sounds 1. The vocal tract (From with thanks to Prof Lynn Gordon) Speech is audible mainly because of activity taking place at the vocal cords. Different sounds are possible because the air flow coming out of the lungs is modified by the shape of the cavities through which it passes, and this affects the acoustic properties of the sound waves (vibrating particles of air) that reach the ear. Speech sounds may be divided roughly into vowels and consonants. For vowels, the air flows freely through the vocal tract, with no significant constriction. For consonants, there is a significant constriction at some point, called the place of articulation. 2. Places of articulation for consonants Some places of articulation for consonants found in English: Bilabial: pea [p], be [b], me [m] Labiodental: fan [f], van [v] Interdental: think [T], than [D] Alveolar: to [t], do [d], node [n], see [s], zoo [z], road [ ], load [l] Palato-alveolar: she [S], pleasure [Z] Palatal: you [j] Velar: keep [k], good [g], sing [N]
2 Some languages make use of other places of articulation. For example, a French r is a uvular consonant (trilled [Ò] or untrilled [X], depending on the variety of French). Some languages make use of a glottal stop [?], involving a tight constriction at the vocal cords. 3. Manner of articulation (i): states of the vocal cords (also called the glottis) Horizontal sections through the larynx, showing the vocal cords apart, adducted, and closed: From (with thanks to Prof. John Coleman) During ordinary breathing (without speech), the vocal cords are normally held apart. Many speech sounds involve adduction (bringing together) of the vocal cords, which now vibrate when air flows through them. This vibration is called voicing. The audibility of speech is largely due to voicing (although not all speech sounds are voiced). 3.1 Voiced sounds of English (with vocal cords adducted) are the vowels and the initial sounds of the following words: wore [V], your [j], lore [l], more [m], node [n], road [ ], van [v], than [D], zoo [z], boo [b], do [d], good [g]. Also the consonant sounds in the middle of pleasure [Z], and at the end of sing [N]. 3.2 Voiceless sounds of English (with the vocal cords apart) are the initial sounds of the following words: fee [f], think [T], see [s], she [S], pea [p], tee [t], keep [k] (and hope [h], but see below). Voiced and voiceless equivalents: [v, f]; [D, T]; [z, s]; [Z, S]; [b, p]; [d, t]; [g, k]. 3.3 Breathy voice/murmur is produced if the vocal cords are apart but there is very high airflow through them. The high airflow causes the vocal cords to flap (rather than vibrate regularly), giving a breathy effect. Hindi has several breathy-voiced consonants including [b-] (traditionally transcribed bh), [d-] (dh), and [g-] (gh). The so-called voiced aspirates of Sanskrit may have been breathy-voiced consonants. English has breathy voice when an h is pronounced between vowels, as in ahead. 3.4 Creaky voice is produced if the vocal cords are held together rigidly so that they can vibrate only at one end. Used in English with the word yeah, to give the meaning I m listening, but I don t necessarily agree with you (see Grivičić and Nilep 2004). 4. Manner of articulation (ii): Unaspirated vs. aspirated consonants As ordinarily understood, aspiration occurs when a voiceless consonant is followed by a voiced sound (typically a vowel) and there is a delay in the onset of voicing ( voice onset delay ): From Ladefoged, A Course in Phonetics, 3rd edn. 5. Manner of articulation (iii): degree of constriction
3 5.1 Stops involve a complete obstruction of the airflow in the mouth. In English, the initial sounds of the following words are ordinary or oral stops: pea [p], bee [p], tea [t], boo [b], do [d], good [g]. Nasal stops (or nasals ) involve complete obstruction of the airflow in the mouth, but the velum is lowered so that air escapes through the nose. The final sounds of the following words are nasal stops: ram [m], ran [n], rang [N]. The word stop is quite often used to refer to oral stops only, without the nasals. 5.2 Fricatives involve a very narrow construction, through which the airflow becomes turbulent: fan [f], van [v], think [T], than [D], see [s], zoo [z], she [S], pleasure [Z] (and arguably hope [h]). 5.3 Approximants involve a wide enough constriction that there is no turbulence: wore [V], your [j], lore [l], road [ ]. They are typically voiced. Most English speakers pronounce the [l] in lore with the tongue touching the alveolar ridge. Nevertheless, the sound is an approximant because the tongue does not touch all the way across: air escapes on the left or right side or both. This type of sound is called a lateral approximant. The simpler term lateral is also used for this type of sound, but some languages, like Welsh, have a lateral fricative (llyn [Â]). Nasals are acoustically similar to approximants, because there is non-turbulent airflow through the nose. Voiced approximants and nasals are sometimes all classified together as resonants. [V] and [j] are often considered consonantal forms of [Ã] (cut) and [I] (kit), and are sometimes classified together as semivowels or glides. 6. Manner of articulation (iii): Oral versus nasal consonants The velum is a flap which can be raised or lowered. During ordinary breathing it is normally down, so that air can escape through the nose. During speech the velum is normally raised, so that air escapes only through the mouth. Nasal consonants such as [m], [n], and [N] are pronounced with the velum down, so that air escapes through the nose. Some languages also make use of nasal (or nasalised ) vowels. Sounds which are not pronounced with velar lowering (i.e. are not nasal) are called oral. 7. Succinct ways of describing consonants A short description of a consonant typically involves stating (a) voicing or voicelessness, (b) the place of articulation, and (c) the degree of constriction. So, [p] is a voiceless labial stop; [v] is a voiced labiodental fricative. What are [z] and [Z]? Consonants are normally assumed to be oral unless otherwise specified. Nasals are assumed to be voiced and to be stops, unless otherwise specified (few languages make use of voiceless nasals, and possibly no language uses nasal fricatives). So [m] may be described briefly as a labial nasal. What about [n] and [N]? Aspiration or lack of aspiration may be mentioned if it is relevant to the purpose at hand.
4 8. Vowels Vowels are normally classified according to tongue height and degree of backness, and lip roundedness or unroundedness. A simple vowel triangle: Example words (as pronounced by me): I u hid cool E head hot a hat And a more detailed one (as per the International Phonetic Alphabet, from Ladefoged 2006): (To hear these pronounced, go to A more realistic picture (from Ladefoged 2006, pp. 19, 20): Positions of the vocal organs for the vowels in The relative positions of the highest points of the tongue heed (1), hid (2), head (3), had (4), father (5), in the vowels in heed (1), hid (2), head (3), had (4), good (6), food (7). (Lip positions are shown father (5), good (6), food (7). for some vowels only.)
5 9. Distinctive vs non-distinctive differences Languages differ not only in the sets of sounds they employ but also in which differences between sounds can make the difference between one word and another. E.g. English has both unaspirated t and aspirated t h. But unaspirated t occurs only after s whereas aspirated t h never occurs after s: strip = [strip h ], trip = [t h rip h ], sty = [stai], tie = [t h ai]. Therefore no two English words differ only in having [t] in one case and [t h ] in the other: they must also differ in having [s] in the one case and not in the other. Ancient Greek has both t and t h and the difference can make the difference between one word and another (e.g. sténei he/she groans, st h énei strength (dative) ): the difference is distinctive. For a description of English we can say that for the purposes of distinguishing words there is one sound 't' which is sometimes aspirated and sometimes not. For a description of Greek we must say that for the purposes of distinguishing words there are separate sounds t and t h. A unit such as English 't' (with variants t and t h ) is called a phoneme. The variants t and t h are called allophones. They occur in different and non-overlapping phonetic environments. Native speakers normally perceive different phonemes to be different sounds. Notational conventions: Symbols labelling phonemes are written between slashes: /t/. Symbols describing (to the level of accuracy required for a particular purpose) the actual pronunciation of a sound, for example an allophone of a phoneme, are written between square brackets: [t], [t h ]. Orthographic symbols under discussion are written between triangular brackets: <τ>. 10. Two tests for phonemic status 10.1 The complementary distribution test: Two sounds are likely to be allophones of the same phoneme if they are in complementary distribution: they never occur in the same environment. Thus, English [k h ] occurs only when no s precedes (key), while [k] occurs only after s (ski) The minimal pair test: Two sounds are likely to belong to different phonemes if the difference between them can be used to contrast words of different meaning, or minimal pairs. Cf. for English lee, key, tea, he, me, be, we, thee, see, she, Dee, knee. Some minimal pairs for Greek aspirated and unaspirated stops (Greek words are shown here in a conventional transcription of the Greek alphabet, not in the International Phonetic Alphabet): pántes all [p] sténei he groans [t] kólos docked [k] phántes saying [p h ] sthénei strength (dat.) [t h ] khólos anger [k h ]
6 4.3 Exercises (after Davenport and Hannahs 2005, pp. 129, 131): 1. Consider the distribution of [w] and [ã] in the following Scots English words ([ã] is a voiceless fricative, with a similar articulation to the voiced approximant [w], i.e. more or less a voiceless [w]). Are the sounds allophones of the same phoneme, or do they belong to different phonemes? a. [ãa>e] why h. [weù] way b. [ãits] which i. [wedr] weather c. [ããit] white j. [wnt] want d. [ãeâz] whales k. [wits] witch e. [ãip] whip l. [wãip] wipe f. [ããiâ] awhile m. [weâz] Wales g. [ãedr] whether n. [ws] awash (Some of the phonetic symbols here will probably be unfamiliar. Their exact value does not matter for this problem.) 2. Consider the following words in Plains Cree (in a conventional transcription of the Cree writing system). Are the sounds [p] and [b] allophones of the same phoneme, or do they belong to different phonemes? a. pahki partly h. naùbeùu man b. niùsosaùp twelve i. aùbihtaùu half c. taùnispiù when j. nibimohtaùn I walk d. paskuaùu prairie k. siùsiùbak ducks e. asabaùp thread l. miùbit tooth f. siùsiùp duck m. nisiùsiùbim my duck g. waùbameùu he sees him Some bibliography and sources of further information (The symbol ù indicates that the preceding vowel is long.) Introductions to phonetics and/or phonology, with exercises (there are copies of these in the Modern Languages Faculty Library): M. Davenport and S. J. Hannahs Introducing Phonetics & Phonology, 2nd edn. London. D. B. Fry The Physics of Speech. Cambridge. [A classic and still very useful book, especially for the acoustic properties of speech sounds.] C. Gussenhoven and H. Jacobs Understanding Phonology, 3rd edn. London. P. Ladefoged Vowels and Consonants, 2nd edn. Malden. [Accompanied by a CD.] P. Ladefoged A Course in Phonetics, 5th edn. Boston. [Accompanied by a CD.] K. Lodge A Critical Introduction to Phonetics. London. On the use of creaky voice to give a particular meaning to English yeah: Grivičić, T. and Nilep, C When phonation matters: the use and function of yeah and creaky voice. Colorado Research in Linguistics 17: If you go to and type in vocal cords, you can find various videos of the larynx when people are talking or singing. These are made using a laryngoscope: a small camera in the throat.
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