CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) means little more than an
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1 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES 2.1 Communicative Language Teaching Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) means little more than an integration of grammatical and functional teaching. Litllewood (1981 : 1) states: One of the most characteristic features of Communicative Language Teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional as well as structural aspect of language In CLT, the teacher spends less time on the structures of the language and more time encouraging the students to use the language. This gives students the opportunity to say what they want to say, and the teacher does not always have control over their language. Fluency plays a big role in CLT. In a real language situation (e.g. writing to a pen friend or speaking to visitors in English), students will focus more on what they are saying rather than the grammatical structures of English. CLT tries to bring this idea into the classroom and help students communicate effectively in the world outside school Theory of Learning The interpretation of CLT according to Finocchiro and Brumfit (1983) are as follows: 1. Language learning is learning to communicate 2. Dialog, it is used as a center on communicative functions. 3. Contextualization is a basic premise. 9
2 10 4. Communicative competence is the desire goal (i.e. the ability to use the linguistic system effectively and appropriately) 5. Teachers help learner in any ways so that motivates them to work with the language. 6. Students are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work or in their writing Technique of Learning an Teaching Activities The range of exercise types and activities compatible with communicative approaches unlimited, provided that such exercise enable learners to attain the communicative adjective of curriculum, engage learner in communication and require the use of such communicative processes as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction. Classroom activities are often designed to focus on completing task that are mediated through language or involve negotiation of information and information sharing. Littlewood (1981) distinguishes between functional communication activities and social interaction activities as major activities types in CLT. Functional communicational activities include such tasks as learners comparing set of pictures and noting similarities and differences; working out a likely sequence of events in a set of picture; one learner communicating behind a screen to another learner and giving instruction on how to draw a picture or shape, or how to complete a map; following direction; and solving problem from shared clues. Social interaction activities include conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays, simulation, improvisation, and debates.
3 Procedure Finnochiaro and Brumfit offer a lesson for learner in the beginning level of a secondary school program that suggests that CLT procedures are evolutionary rather than revolutionary: 1. Presentation of a brief dialog or several mini-dialog, preceded by a motivation (relating the dialog situation to the learner s probable community experiences) and a discussion of the function and a situation people, roles, setting, topic, and the informality or informality of the language which the function and situation demand. 2. Oral practice of each utterance of the dialog segment to be presented that day (entire, class repetition, half class, group, individuals) generally proceeded by teacher s model. 3. Questions and answers based on the dialog topic and situation itself. 4. Questions and answers related to the students personal experiences but centered on the dialog theme. 5. Study one of the basic communicative expression in the dialog or one of the structures which exemplify the function. 2.2 The Strategy of Teaching Speaking Skill The goal of teaching speaking skill is communicative efficiency. Learners should be able to make themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty
4 12 pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, and to observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication situation. To help students develop communicative efficiency in speaking, instructor can use a balanced activities approach that combine language input, structured output, and communicative output. Language input comes in the form of teacher, listening activities, reading passages, and the language heard and read outside of class. It gives learners the material they need to begin producing language themselves. Language input may be content oriented or form oriented. Contentoriented input focuses on information, whether it is a simple weather report or an extended lecture on an academic topic. Content-oriented input may also include descriptions of learning strategies and example of their use. Form-oriented input focuses on ways of using the language: guidance from the teacher or another source on vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar (linguistic competence): appropriate things to say in specific contexts (discourse competence); expectations for rate of speech, pause length, turn-taking, and other social aspects of language use (sociolinguistic competence); and explicit instruction in phrases to use to ask for clarification and repair miscommunication (strategic competence). In the presentation part of the lesson, an instructor combine content-oriented and form oriented input. The amount of input that is actually provided in the target language depends on students listening proficiency and also on the situation. For students at lower level, or in situations where a quick explanation on a grammar topic is needed, an explanation in English may be more appropriate than one in the target language. Structured output focuses on
5 13 correct form. In the structured output, students may have options for responses, but all of the options require them to use the specific form or structure that the teacher has just introduced. In communicative output activities, the criterion of success is whether the learners get the message across. Accuracy is not a consideration unless the lack of it interferes with the message. In everyday communication, spoken exchanges take place because there is some sort of information gap between the participants. Communicative output activities involve a similar real information gap. In order to complete the task, students must reduce or eliminate the information gap. In these activities, language is a tool, not an end itself. In a balanced activities approach, the teacher uses a variety of activities from these different categories of input and output. Learners at all proficiency levels, including beginners, benefit from this variety; it is more motivating, and it is also more likely to result in effective language learning The Important of Pronunciation In language teaching, pronunciation has been seen as a peripheral compared to central aspect such as function, grammar, etc. Provided the learner s attempts at the phonemes of the language are understandable, there is no need to worry about finer points. The working memory theory, however, sees pronunciation as vital to language processing of language and with storing the language teaching in recent years has hampered not just the student s ability to pronounce words, but also their fundamental capacity to process and learn the
6 14 language. Pronunciation should be taken more seriously, not just for its own sake, but as the basis for speaking and comprehending Technique to Teach Pronunciation Teaching pronunciation is an urgent problem. The majority of teachers of English area trained domestically, i.e., they have never abroad, let alone to English native speaking countries. English has been taught raw for many years. Educations could not enough facilities for teaching English properly, lacking basic aids such as good textbooks and tape recorders. Consequently, English pronunciation has deviated from Standard English. The teacher now should play the role of facilitators and guides in the process. Three of these techniques can be chosen to apply to teach pronunciation: 1. Breathing According to Hardison and Sonchaeng (2005, p: 598), practicing breathing help increase the ability to pause language appropriately in long sentences and expand use vowel space for greater intelligibility. They provide careful guidance for using the technique. First, students are asked to take a deep breath, hold it for a few second and exhale slowly making sounds, practice several times and then change to produce a set of sentences with different length in a single breath, e.g.: We were away, we were away a year ago, You know we were away a year ago.
7 15 2. Flow of The Voice To speak and communicate meaningfully, students should be able to control a variety of pitch levels. Pitch levels directly affect the intonation of the sentences that they speak. In English different intonation may mean different meanings, which can cause trouble for students when they communicate. For example, in Indonesian language, there is only one type of intonation in question structure: rising tone at the end of the sentences, while there are two in English with yes/ no and WH-questions. As a result, when constructing question in English, many students tend to raise voice at the end of the sentence. That is why practicing a variety of pitch levels is so essential to students. 3. Songs: melody and lyrics According to Harison and Sonchaeng (2005, p: 603) music highly motivating and helps blending and linking, the flow of speech and the rise/ fall of the voice - all of which maximize pitch range. There is also a unique phenomena related to music and language observed by the writer: many people, who can not understand a single word in English, are able to sing English song with excellent proper pronunciation of their lyrics. That may be the reason why the idea of using songs in teaching and learning language is introduced by many educators.
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