THE CONCEPT OF GENRE IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASS: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE STUDENTS INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE. MIHAELA COZMA West University of Timişoara

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1 DOI: /rjes THE CONCEPT OF GENRE IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CLASS: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE STUDENTS INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE MIHAELA COZMA West University of Timişoara Abstract: In order to communicate effectively with people belonging to different social or ethnic groups, any language user is supposed to have not only a good command of the language code involved, but also what is generally known as intercultural knowledge. As a consequence, the development of the students' cultural competence is perceived today as a major aim of the foreign language education. Starting from this hypothesis, the paper discusses the manner in which the concept of genre can provide students with insights into cultural expectations of creating a text in both spoken and written English. Keywords: genre, genre conventions, intercultural awareness, teaching productive skills, teaching receptive skills 1. Introduction At a time when it is widely agreed that the role of learning a foreign language is that of preparing the students for living in a multicultural world, methodologists emphasize the importance of intercultural understanding as an important goal of language education. This is one of the reasons why the more recent models of language instruction have been trying to shift away the focus from the language as an abstract entity and to place it on the manner in which language is used in actual communication. The principles of such pedagogical models of language are frequently materialized in the requirements stated by the national curriculum for foreign languages. Thus, in many countries, the language curriculum is based on a number of competences defined as sets of knowledge and skills that students are supposed to acquire during a particular cycle. In Romania, for example, the language competences that students should acquire at highschool level are (cf. Reception of oral and written messages sent in various situations of communication Production of oral and written messages which are adequate to given contexts Interaction realized by means of oral and written communication Transfer and mediation of oral and written messages It is obvious, therefore, that, conceived in this way, language instruction is meant to prepare learners to function effectively and to participate actively in the society in which the foreign language is used. This general objective implies that an extra emphasis should be laid on two elements of the language competence, elements which are, however, inter-related: intercultural awareness, on the one hand, and discoursal ability, on the other. I consider that

2 one of the approaches to teaching which offers language instructors the opportunity of providing their students with training in the case of both these elements is the genre-based approach. The main idea put forward by my paper is that, by using a genre-based approach, or, more specifically, by offering our students training with regard to the conventions of language use in various contexts of communication, we increase their inter-cultural awareness. This awareness represents an important gain, because it is a skill for life and not just a notion acquired as part of a course and forgotten later on. 2. The Genre-Based Approach to Teaching a Foreign Language Genre, which is a familiar concept in disciplines like literature or rhetoric, has been gradually extended to various fields of applied linguistics during the last few decades. But genre studies is far from being a unitary discipline, since it is considered to comprise theoretical and applied approaches that belong to three different traditions: English for Specific Purposes (ESP), North American New Rhetoric Studies, and Australian systemic functional linguistics (cf. Hyon 1996). Even if there does not seem to be general consensus on what exactly genre is, I will define this concept by briefly outlining the contributions made by two of the most influential genre theorists, namely Swales (1990), on the one hand, and Bhatia (1993, 2004), on the other. Focusing on the ESP perspective of genre, Swales (1990:58) describes it as a class of communicative events characterized by some shared set of communicative purposes, which are recognized by the members of the professional community where the genre occurs. These purposes constitute the rationale for the genre, determining the schematic structure of the discourse and influencing the choice of content and style. Bhatia (1993, 2004) expressed his agreement with the stand taken by Swales, and further tried to bring together the three traditions of genre theory in a comprehensive definition of genre: Genre essentially refers to language use in a conventionalized communicative setting in order to give expression to a specific set of communicative goals of a disciplinary or social institution, which give rise to stable structural forms by imposing constraints on the use of lexico-grammatical as well as discoursal resources. (Bhatia 2004:23) Such definitions of genre reveal two features that are considered to play a very important role in the understanding of this notion. Firstly, the particular nature and the makeup of a genre are mainly determined by the communicative purpose that it is meant to fulfil. The second important feature refers to the essential role played by the related concepts of constraint and convention, which induce the specific lexico-grammatical and discoursal format of the genre-text. In fact, the use of the highly conventionalized knowledge of linguistic resources represents a sine qua non condition for the successful achievement of the specific communicative purpose of any genre. Starting from the assumption that a genre comprises texts that share similar textual features and that serve the same function, it is obvious that such texts are characterized by recurring syntactic, semantic and pragmatic patterns. It is precisely the presence of these specific text forms that make the concept of genre a valuable tool in the process of teaching and learning a foreign language. Harmer (2007) is one of the main foreign language methodologists who acknowledged the importance of genre knowledge, viewing it as one of the reasons why we can communicate successfully. In his definition, genre is a type of written organization and layout (such as an advertisement, a letter, a poem, a magazine article, etc.) which will be instantly recognized for what it is by members of a discourse community 2

3 that is any group of people who share the same language customs and norms (Harmer 2007:31). Even if the genre approach to teaching English is traditionally associated with English for Specific Purposes, I strongly believe in line with various methodologists, such as Agustien (2008) or Harmer (2007) that it can also be successfully used with general English students, even at beginner or intermediate levels, if we want them to be able to produce effective communication in a wide range of real-life situations. It is obvious that the purely theoretical knowledge with regard to the linguistic format characterizing various genres is not enough. If the teacher intends to train students in the correct choice and use of the linguistic features that ensure the achievement of particular communicative purposes, then those students must be familiarized with the concept of genre and helped to acquire the necessary skills in this respect. In fact, the important role played by the teacher in the context of genre pedagogy is very well expressed by the concept of scaffolding, introduced by Vygotsky (1978, in Chaisiri 2010), which implies that the teacher s task is that of supporting students in learning through raising their awareness of target genres and available language choices. But what are the concrete ways in which teachers can help their students acquire generic knowledge and experience? In order to offer an answer to this question, I will start from those aspects that can be considered essential for the specific makeup of any genre: the socio-cultural situation which normally imposes the use of that genre, and the conventions which determine both the structure and the linguistic format of the genre texts. I consider that these aspects also determine the general directions that genre training is supposed to follow if the teacher intends to develop the students cultural competence in this way. In more specific terms, the use of genre as part of the foreign language teaching involves raising the students awareness with regard to three elements: situational considerations of the genre-texts, organizational structure, and linguistic features. In what follows, I will discuss the manner in which these elements can be used as part of the English language lessons, pointing to the specific aspects involved in the training of the productive skills, on the one hand, and in the training of the receptive skills, on the other. 3. Using Genre in the Process of Teaching the Productive Skills Even if writing is the language skill which receives the greatest amount of attention in the genre pedagogy (e.g. Chaisiri 2010, Lin 2006), many of the principles stipulated by the genre theorists are also valid for its oral counterpart, speaking. The truth is that, while speaking and writing are substantially different in many ways, they are both used for the same purpose to communicate. The traditional writing and speaking activities used during the English language classes most commonly take the form of guided or free compositions, isolated decontextualized sentences, dictation, guided or free role-plays, simulations, discussions, etc. Even in the case of the creative communication activities, the scenario is generally suggested by the teacher, and the focus is on the linguistic content. The problem is that the language production involved in such activities does not always keep account of all the features presented by the real contexts of communication, and, consequently, does not make a full contribution to the students communicative competence. As an alternative to this type of activities, the genre-based approach represents an opportunity for purposeful speaking and writing, facilitating clear links to the students purposes for using the language outside the classroom (cf. Lin 2006:230). A particularity presented by the teaching of the productive skills is that the genre approach is useful at two different, but inter-related stages of the instructional process: a) the 3

4 pre-writing/ speaking stage, when students analyze texts belonging to a particular genre, in order to get familiarized with various socio-cultural and linguistic aspects regarding its use, and b) the production stage, when students use the acquired generic knowledge in order to produce their own texts. In what follows, I will explain the manner in which the three elements mentioned above (i.e., situational considerations of the genre-texts, organizational structure, and linguistic features) can be exploited at each of these stages: a) Developing the students exposure to different genres At this pre-writing/ pre-speaking stage, which is also referred to under the name of modeling the genre (cf. Derewianka 2003:147), students work on examples of written and oral texts belonging to a particular genre: e.g. leaflets, recipes, public notices, advertisements, weather reports, etc. They discuss the socio-cultural context in which that genre is normally used, taking into account details about the purpose that the text, as a representative of its genre, is meant to achieve, the socio-professional community to which the genre text belongs, the presence of the culture-specific elements and their relationship to the central idea that the original text producer is trying to convey. Then, teachers should draw their students attention to the structural organization which is specific to the genre in which they are working, stressing the fact that the producers of texts belonging to a particular genre tend to be fairly consistent in the way they organize the overall message. In addition to getting familiarized with the macrostructural features of the genre, students must also be guided to identify the conventions regarding the linguistic features of the genre texts, and to discuss the contribution of these features to the genre purpose. b) Assisting the students construction of various genre texts After the students become aware of the main communicative purpose determining a particular genre, of the socio-cultural context in which it is normally encountered, and of the conventions which govern the structure and the linguistic makeup of its representative texts, they can go on to create their own oral (e.g. role play, announcement, news item, advertisement, etc.) or written (e.g. job application, tourist brochure, instructions for use, review, etc.) texts in that genre. At this stage, the teacher s main role is that of helping the students use the language appropriately, in accordance with the genre purpose. This means that, on the one hand, students must respect issues related to the specific structural organization, and, on the other, they must select those linguistic forms of discoursal (e.g. cohesive devices, thematic patterns, speech acts), syntactic (e.g. sentence structure and complexity, typical phrase structure) and lexico-semantic (e.g. neologisms, formal/ informal lexical items, terminology, specific expressions) nature that best contribute to the achievement of the generic purpose. Such activities are meant to make students aware of the cultural specificity presented by certain linguistic structures and forms, and, in this way, make an important contribution to their intercultural competence. 4. Using Genre in the Process of Teaching the Receptive Skills The genre approach to language teaching can also be very useful in the case of the receptive skills, i.e. reading and listening. The principles of the genre pedagogy find application in this case especially in the light of the more recent methodological models (cf. Carrell 1998 for a review of these models), which claim that, even if called receptive, reading and listening actually represent active processes. More specifically, it is considered that the correct understanding of a particular written or oral text is based on a constant 4

5 interplay between the writer's perspective, ideas, development of arguments, intentions and conclusions, as they are reflected by that text, and the reader s experiences, cultural background and biases. In line with this trend, Carrell and Eisterhold (1998) propose a model of foreign language reading pedagogy in which an essential role is played by the concept of schema. This concept, whose origins are to be found in the fields of Psychology and Philosophy, can be defined as a mental representation of a typical instance which helps people to make sense of the world more quickly because people understand new experiences by activating relevant schema in their mind (Cook 1997:86). In Carrell and Eisterhold s view (1998:82), reading comprehension depends crucially on the reader s being able to relate information from the text to already existing background knowledge. This might explain why a reader s or listener s failure to activate an appropriate schema (formal and content) during the process of language reception may lead to various degrees of non-comprehension. Unfortunately, there are many situations when students fail to comprehend a reading or a listening text, even if they understand every word and every grammatical item in it. One explanation for this situation is that the formal and/ or content schema is not part of their cultural background. It is here that the genre approach can bring its contribution to improving the foreign language learners receptive skills, and, implicitly, to increasing their intercultural competence. By becoming aware of the socio-cultural and linguistic specificity of the genres in which they are supposed to work, the students get equipped with appropriate schemata that they can subsequently activate during the process of reading and listening comprehension. Just like in the case of the productive skills, teachers are supposed to raise their students awareness with regard to the three elements which create genre specificity (i.e., situational considerations of the genre-texts, organizational structure, and linguistic features) at two different stages of the instructional process: a) the pre-reading/ listening stage, when students are prepared for the actual work with the text by means of activities meant to interest them in the topic and, at the same time, to familiarize them with the genre in question, and b) a combined while- and post-reading/ listening stage, when students use the acquired generic knowledge for a full comprehension of the written or oral text. The activities specific to each of these stages are briefly presented below: a) Preparing students for the reading/ listening of the genre text At this stage, teachers help their students get familiarized with the situational context specific to the genre of the text to be read/ heard by means of discussions, question-andanswer sessions, or other types of activities meant to reveal culture-related background information. The preparatory activities should focus, first of all, on details about the circumstances under which texts belonging to that genre are normally produced: the author of the text, intended audience, the socio-professional group which uses that genre, etc. The purpose of the text as a representative of its genre must be highlighted. Additionally, the students prior knowledge of the topic under discussion must be activated, so that they can consciously use it as they read/ hear the text. The activities carried out at this initial stage also regard aspects related to the linguistic format of the reading/ listening text, even if these aspects are given more attention during the following stage. Thus, teachers may draw attention to the general structure of the particular genre text, because, in this way, students can map the information they obtain from the text to the pre-existing structure of text organization, and, thus, get a logical comprehension of the text. Specific vocabulary and structures (e.g. culturally loaded concepts, specialized vocabulary and structures, etc.) are also frequently taught to students before reading/ listening, so that new words, background information, and comprehension can improve together. 5

6 b) Assisting the students processing of the written/ oral text While and after reading the text, teachers are supposed to help students gain a deep comprehension of the manner in which the organizational structure, on the one hand, and the linguistic choice, on the other, contribute to the central idea of the text, and, implicitly, to the main communicative purpose of the genre that it represents. Consequently, during this stage, students should be involved in activities focused on the analysis of the text structure, with a view to identifying the main idea in each text segment and the contribution that each segment makes to the generic purpose. Additionally, students should receive tasks related to the linguistic features displayed by the text they have read/ listened to at discoursal, syntactic and lexico-semantic levels. The teacher can either guide the students through all these levels, or choose to focus on a particular one at a certain point of the training process. In this way, genres represent good opportunities for teaching lexical and grammatical structures in context. The important thing is that the language activities used by the teacher should make the students aware that the linguistic features which are regarded as conventions for a particular genre represent formal traits that have been sanctioned by the community that uses them, to the detriment of others which would be linguistically acceptable but do not fit the previously agreed patterns. 5. Conclusion The theoretical and the practical aspects discussed in this paper are meant to highlight the fact that the genre approach has implications for the language learners cultural competence, because people belonging to a certain culture have shared knowledge regarding the type of linguistic format that they must use in order to achieve particular social purposes. Consequently, when they receive training in the genres of a new culture, our students actually learn how to become active participants in that culture. Moreover, by being focused on the creation of meaning at the level of discourse and not on the acquisition of syntactical forms, the notion of genre increases the learners ability to produce written and oral texts which fulfill the expectations of their addressees in terms of lexical choice, grammar, organization, and context. The main benefits brought by the use of genre in the context of foreign language teaching are summarized by Hyland (2007:150), who presents genre pedagogy as being explicit (making it clear what is to be learned for the acquisition of various language skills), systematic (providing a coherent framework for focusing on both language and contexts), needs-based (ensuring that course objectives and content are derived from the students needs), supportive (giving teachers a central role in scaffolding their students learning and creativity), empowering (providing access to the patterns and possibilities of variation in valued texts), critical (providing the resources for students to understand and challenge valued discourses), and consciousness-raising (increasing students awareness of certain specific elements of the foreign culture). However, it must be also mentioned that the genre approach is not free from a number of potential problems and difficulties. On the one hand, it is obvious that students cannot be provided with training in each and every of the genres that they might encounter when they communicate in real-life contexts. On the other hand, there is also the problem that establishing the limits of certain genres is sometimes a difficult task, or that there are some categories of texts which are difficult to be included in one genre (e.g. the docudramas mentioned by Derewianka 2003:149). However, I consider that, if the English learners are given the basic skills in this respect, they will be able to resort to them in any situation in which that might prove necessary. 6

7 References Agustien, Helen I. R Competence-Based Curriculum and Its Practical Implications. Paper presented at UTB International Seminar, Bandung 22 February, 2006 [Online]. Available: wordpress.com/2008/09/13/tribute-to-helena-agustien-phd/helena-paper1/ [Accessed 2013, April]. Bhatia, Vijay Kumar Analyzing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings. London: Longman. Bhatia, Vijay Kumar Worlds of Written Discourse: A Genre-Based View. London and New York: Continuum. Carrell, Patricia L Introduction: Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading in Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Patricia L. Carrell, Joanne Devine, David E. Eskey (Eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp Carrell, Patricia L. and Eisterhold, Joan C Schema Theory and ESL Reading Pedagogy in Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Patricia L. Carrell, Joanne Devine, David E. Eskey (Eds.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp Chaisiri, Tawatchai Implementing a Genre Pedagogy to the Teaching of Writing in a University Context in Thailand. Language Education in Asia 1(1): Available: 10/V1/A16/Chaisiri [Accessed 2013, April]. Cook, Guy Key Concepts in ELT: Schemas. ELT Journal 5(1):86. Derewianka, Beverly Trends and Issues in Genre-Based Approaches. RELC Journal 34(2), pp Harmer, Jeremy The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 th ed.). Essex: Pearson Longman. Hyland, Ken Genre Pedagogy: Language, Literacy and L2 Writing Instruction. Journal of Second Language Writing 16(3): Hyon, Sunny Genre in Three Traditions: Implications for ESL. TESOL Quarterly 30: Lin, Benedict Genre-based Teaching and Vygotskian Principles in EFL: The Case of a University Writing Course. Asian EFL Journal 8 (3): Romanian National Curriculum [Online]. Available: [Accessed 2013, April]. Swales, John M Genre Analysis. English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vygotsky, Lev Mind in Society. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Notes on the author Mihaela Cozma is Ph.D. lecturer at the English Department of the West University in Timişoara, Romania. She teaches courses and seminars of English Morphology, English Teaching Methodology and Translation Studies. She is interested in various aspects related to teacher training, translation teaching and translation research, and has published a wide range of scientific papers on these topics. 7

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