PAPERS IN STRUCTURAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LINGUISTICS
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1 PAPERS IN STRUCTURAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LINGUISTICS
2 FORMAL LINGUISTICS SERIES Editor: H. HIZ, University of Pennsylvania Consulting Editors: ZELLIG s. HARRIS, University of Pennsylvania HENRY M. HOENIGSWALD, University of Pennsylvania VOLUME 1
3 ZELLIG S. HARRIS PAPERS IN STRUCTURAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LINGUISTICS SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
4 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number ISBN DOI / ISBN (ebook) All Rights Reserved Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 1970 Originally published by D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland in 1970 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1970 No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher
5 PREFACE The papers reprinted in this volume carry out what has been called the distributional method, i.e. the analysis of occurrence-restrictions, beyond phonemics. The establishment of the phoneme marked the beginning of structural linguistics both in content and in method. In respect to content: Before phonemics, the physical nature of speaking suggested that the entities of language are sounds which differ from each other on a continuous scale, and whose wave-forms are decomposable into superposed elements (sine-waves), and change continuously through the duration of speaking. Phonemics showed that none of these properties are relevant to structural entities: phonemes can be realized by physical events other than sounds; they do not superpose, and their differences and transitions are discrete. In respect to method: The pre-phonemic descriptive approach in grammar was to record the physically obtainable data (sounds as heard) and to note how those sounds occurred in speech - what combinations of them constituted words, what sequence of words occurred, and so on. Phonemics showed that new entities, the phonemes, could be defined as classifications of these sounds based on their occurrence-relations. The occurrence-restrictions (i.e., the restrictions on combination) of the originally observed sounds are thereupon replaced, equivalently, by the occurrence-restriction which determines membership of sounds in phonemes, plus the occurrence-restrictions on the phonemes. This methodological approach, of defining more freely combining new elements on the basis of occurrence-restrictions of old elements, has proved applicable in many further situations in structural linguistics. For example, it has produced more freely combining phonological entities such as the phonemic long components out of which phonemes can be obtained (Paper 1). It has led to constructionally-definable morphological entities: e.g., when morphemes are defined on the basis of relations among morpheme alternants (IV), including non-contiguous ones (V); or when certain morphemes are shown to be resultants of several morphemic components (VII). Even syntactic entities are obtained with this approach: locally, when we ask what morpheme sequences are substitutable for (i.e. have the same occurrencerestrictions as) the single morphemes of elementary sentences (VI); construe-
6 VI STRUCTURAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LINGUISTICS tionally (from local to global), when we ask what sub-sequences in a sentence are such that all sentences are regularly composed of contiguous adjoinings of them (XVII); globally, when we ask how elementary sentences can be defined on the basis of relations among sentence transforms (XXIII). The hierarchical defining of new elements, one level in terms of another, provides a more compact description of the combinations which occur in language. But not only that: It also changes the character of structural linguistics from a science of classificationallists to one of relational types. This development stems from the following: Every linguistic classification is based on a relation in respect to occurrence in combinations. When the classification of the observed data into phonemes, and of these into other entities, and so on, is carried out wherever possible, we find that while the classes are necessarily different in each case, and while the effect of the classificatory relation is in each case the equivalent of certain occurrence-restrictions, the relations which show up in the various cases are of only a few types. And while classes (relations) of physical events with their occurrence-restrictions are the primitives of the grammar, it is the types of relation that are the primitives of the meta-grammar. There are behavioral relations which replace the original data: phonemic distinction on the basis of the pair-test (XXXVI) replaces the data of sounds; acceptability-ordering (XXVII) replaces the characterization of what is in the language. There are substitutive relations (free and complementary variants): among phoneme variants and components; and among sentence transforms. And there are sequential relations: on phonemes to define morphemes stochastically (II); on morphemes to define those phrases which can be sentence components (VI); on words to define strings (XVII), or to define elementary sentences (XXIII); on strings to define sentences (XVII - permitting then a stochastic definition of sentence from words). Finally, there are operator-relations: on elementary sentences to produce other sentences (XXVII, XXX). Occurrence-restrictions among segments of the sentences of a discourse involve quite different relations: one of these appears in XIX; another is the scope over which reference can stretch. That occurrence-relations are relevant to structure is clear from the fact that for each set of entities not all combinations occur as utterances of the languages. But occurrence-relations have also an interpretational relevance, because the entities and distinctions which they define have a useful interpretation in the behavioral or meaningful character of language. This is clear in the case of phonemes, where phonemic distinction indicates what is and is not repetition in the language; so also in the case of morphemes, which correspond to the rough subdivisions of meaning in the language; and so in the case of elementary sentences, which express assertion. Going beyond
7 PREFACE VII this, when the analysis of occurrence-relations is carried out as far as possible on the observed data, it produces a separation between the informationbearing properties and the paraphrastic properties of language (XXX). It permits a decomposition of each sentence into information-bearing components (of various kinds) and, separately, other components. The information-bearing components are then found to have a separate structure (a grammar), with very little restriction on combination (i.e., on what information can be expressed), while the non-information-bearing components have a different and restrictive grammar. Thus the analysis of occurrence-relations, which led first to phonemics, leads finally to the distinguishing of two structurally and interpretationally different systems which together produce language.
8 CONTENTS PREFACE v STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS. 1; METHODS I. Simultaneous Components in Phonology 3 II. From Phoneme to Morpheme 32 III. Morpheme Boundaries within Words: Report on a Computer Test 68 IV. Morpheme Alternants in Linguistic Analysis 78 V. Discontinuous Morphemes 91 VI. From Morpheme to Utterance 100 VII. Componential Analysis of a Paradigm 126 VIII. Immediate-Constituent Formulation of English Syntax 131 'IX. Transfer Grammar 139 STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS. 2: LANGUAGE STRUCTURES X. The Phonemes of Moroccan Arabic XI. Navaho Phonology and Hoijer's Analysis XII. Yokuts Structure and Newman's Grammar XIII. Emeneau's Kota Texts XIV. Structural Restatements: I XV. Structural Restatements: II STRING ANALYSIS AND COMPUTATION XVI. Computable Syntactic Analysis: The 1959 Computer Sentence-Analyzer 253 XVII. Introduction to String Analysis 278 XVIII. A Cycling Cancellation-Automaton for Sentence Well- Formedness 286
9 X STRUCTURAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LINGUISTICS DISCOURSE ANALYSIS XIX. Discourse Analysis XX. Discourse Analysis: A Sample Text XXI. Culture and Style in Extended Discourse TRANSFORMATIONS XXII. Introduction to Transformations 383 XXIII. Co-Occurrence and Transformation in Linguistic Structure 390 XXIV. Linguistic Transformations for Information Retrieval 458 XXV. Transformations in Linguistic Structure 472 XXVI. The Elementary Transformations 482 XXVII. Transformational Theory 533 XXVIII. Decomposition Lattices 578 XXIX. Algebraic Operations in Linguistic Structure 603 XXX. The Two Systems of Grammar: Report and Paraphrase 612 ABOUT LINGUISTICS XXXI. Gray's Foundations of Language XXXII. Trubetzkoy's Grundzuge der Phonologie XXXIII. Sapir's Selected Writings XXXIV. Edward Sapir XXXV. Eliciting in Linguistics XXXVI. Distributional Structure XXXVII. A Language for International Cooperation INDEX OF SUBJECTS INDEX OF SYMBOLS AND TERMS
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