1. Language as product vs. Language as process

Transcription

1 1. Language as product vs. Language as process Bottom up processing: [T]he smallest units of language are identified first, and these are chained together to form the next highest unit; these units in turn are then chained together to form the next highest unit and so on. (Nunan 1993: 78 79) Top down processing: [L]isteners/readers make sense of discourse by moving from the highest units of analysis to the lowest. (Nunan 1993: 81) Interactive processing: [C]omprehension is not a simple matter either of moving from lower to higher, or from higher to lower elements but is an interactive process. (Nunan 1993: 83) Text as product view: [It] does not take account of those principles which constrain the production and those which constrain the interpretation of texts. (Brown & Yule 1983a: 24) Discourse as process view: ( ) discussing how a recipient might come to comprehend the producer s intended message on a particular occasion, and how the requirements of the particular recipient(s), in definable circumstances, influence the organisation of the producer s discourse. (Brown & Yule 1983a: 24)

2 1.1. Discourse varieties Affected by: S (Setting) P (Participants) E (Ends) A (Appropriateness) K (Key) I (Instrumentalities) N (Norms) G (Genre) (Hymes 1972)

3 1.2. Context and cotext Context: [It] refers to the situation giving rise to the discourse, and within which the discourse is embedded. (Nunan 1993: 7 8) Cotext: [T]he actual text surrounding any given lexical item. (McCarthy 1991: 64)

4 1.3. Conversational Analysis (CA) and Discourse Analysis (DA) STRATEGIES, SOCIAL FUNCTIONS AND STRUCTURE

5 STRATEGIES 1 What are your expectations concerning Spoken Discourse? How do form and function interact? General aspects concerning strategies: Interactants; t/v and other related notions Purpose; interaction vs. transaction Physical setting; common vs. split Improvised vs. planned speech Why studying norms/principles and other context dependent variables

6 STRATEGIES 2 Speech and Writing The opposition view Writing is Objective A monologue Durable Scannable Planned Highly structured Syntactically complex Concerned with past and future Formal Expository Argument oriented Decontextualised Abstract Speech is Interpersonal A dialogue Ephemeral Only linearly accessible Spontaneous Loosely structured Syntactically simple Concerned with the present Informal Narrative Event oriented Contextualised Concrete

7 STRATEGIES 3 Speech And Writing The Continuum view Traditional Writing Face to Face Speech < > Word processors Telephones Videophones, Teleconferencing (Jenkins, 2003: ) Some features of the grammar of spoken English: Heads (or left dislocation ) Tails (or reinforcement ) Ellipsis Word order (Jenkins, 2003: )

8 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS Why a ready made conception of discourse cannot explain everything: In terms of quantity: how do you know this is enough? Embarrassing silences In terms of quality: can you be sure of every single aspect you decide to share? In terms of relation/relevance: coherence, immediacy and establishing priorities In terms of manner: is this always a second order kind of maxim? Can an automaton speak proper English? Can it interact by means of language? The importance of the conversational contract (generally implicit; sometimes explicit)

9 STRUCTURE Two major views of interaction: Conversation Analysis (CA) vs. Discourse Analysis (DA) Why CA rejects the views of DA, and vice versa Major advantages and disadvantages Points of convergence and points of divergence Main elements/terms in CA: Ethnometodology Naturally occurring/unedited speech Non verbal communication How conversation is structured Notation system(s) Repair mechanisms Main elements/terms in DA: From interaction to discourse acts Analysing monologue The importance of intonation cues, etc. Exporting the model: from teaching situations to literary texts

10 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 1 Based on a series of proposals elaborated at Birmingham University in the 1970 s and 1980 s Historically connected with J.R. Firth and functional approaches Interaction: a set of free transactions, delimited through intonation, not topic Transaction: a set of exchanges: preliminary, opening, challenging, reopening Exchange: a set of moves: framing, focusing, support, opening, bound opening, reopening, challenging

11 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 2 Move: a set of (discourse) acts: starter, marker, summons, qualifier, metastatement, conclusion, comment, accept, acknowledge, reply, react, excuse, informative, elicit, accusation, prompt, command, evaluation, greeting Act: the minimal informative unit in terms of DA

12 CONVERSATION ANALYSIS Based on a series of proposals elaborated in American universities in the 1970 s and 1980 s Historically connected with American sociolinguistics and communication studies Different fields of study, including: Turn organization and turn taking Adjacency pairs Sequences, e.g. opening, topic initiators, q a sequences, subsidiary sequences, closing sequences Repair mechanisms (self and other repair) Kinesics The notation system

13 2. Varieties of spoken English Geographical aspects: As first, second or foreign language? Social aspects: In what kinds of situations, for what kinds of domains? International relations The media: The press, Advertising, Broadcasting, Cinema, Popular music International travel International safety Education Communications (Crystal, 2003: )

14 2.1. From Standard English (SE) to English as an International Language (EIL) Standard, non standard or sub standard? Attitudes towards English in Britain in the last fifty years. Acrolects, mesolects and basilects. From the influence from within (BBC English?) to the influence from outside (GA, Caribbean, Indian, etc.). Towards a new standard?

15 2.2. English as a First, Second (ESL) and Foreign Language (EFL) Kachru s circles: inner, outer and expanding circles. Extending the model: different scales, different realities. What makes a second language speaker? Who is a foreign language speaker? With what degree of proficiency? Monolingual English speakers (MES), Bilingual English speakers (BES) and Non bilingual English speakers (NBES)

16 2.3. English as a means for international communication Who do you regularly use English to communicate with? In what kind of situation? For what kind(s) of domains? Orally? In written format? Through a highly structured kind of speech? Should exposure to different varieties be a priority in current teaching situations?

17 3. English for oral international communication Trying to overcome differences. Trying to overcome difficulties. Establishing priorities. Establishing a model.

18 3.1. Pronunciation A new canon? No longer R.P.? G.A., N.R.P. and E.I.L. Rhoticity. Stress based vs. syllable based. Euro English? Other models for reference?

19 3.2. Meaning and vocabulary A common core vocabulary? Peculiarities in lexis in different parts of the world: America Africa Asia Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific

20 3.3. Text, grammar and text grammar From loose sentences to odd looking (odd sounding?) constructions. It s a matter of concordance, eh? How do you want your English to sound like? Grammatical anathema, change and the canon.

21 3.4. Discourse and pragmatics Different interactive strategies? Is being a native an advantage? How? When? To what extent? Intercultural pragmatics. The importance of establishing a common ground.

22 1. Language as product vs. Language as process Bottom up processing: [T]he smallest units of language are identified first, and these are chained together to form the next highest unit; these units in turn are then chained together to form the next highest unit and so on. (Nunan 1993: 78 79) Top down processing: [L]isteners/readers make sense of discourse by moving from the highest units of analysis to the lowest. (Nunan 1993: 81) Interactive processing: [C]omprehension is not a simple matter either of moving from lower to higher, or from higher to lower elements but is an interactive process. (Nunan 1993: 83) Text as product view: [It] does not take account of those principles which constrain the production and those which constrain the interpretation of texts. (Brown & Yule 1983a: 24) Discourse as process view: ( ) discussing how a recipient might come to comprehend the producer s intended message on a particular occasion, and how the requirements of the particular recipient(s), in definable circumstances, influence the organisation of the producer s discourse. (Brown & Yule 1983a: 24) 1

23 1.1. Discourse varieties Affected by: S (Setting) P (Participants) E (Ends) A (Appropriateness) K (Key) I (Instrumentalities) N (Norms) G (Genre) (Hymes 1972) 2

24 1.2. Context and cotext Context: [It] refers to the situation giving rise to the discourse, and within which the discourse is embedded. (Nunan 1993: 7 8) Cotext: [T]he actual text surrounding any given lexical item. (McCarthy 1991: 64) 3

25 1.3. Conversational Analysis (CA) and Discourse Analysis (DA) STRATEGIES, SOCIAL FUNCTIONS AND STRUCTURE 4

26 STRATEGIES 1 What are your expectations concerning Spoken Discourse? How do form and function interact? General aspects concerning strategies: Interactants; t/v and other related notions Purpose; interaction vs. transaction Physical setting; common vs. split Improvised vs. planned speech Why studying norms/principles and other context dependent variables 5

27 STRATEGIES 2 Speech and Writing The opposition view Writing is Speech is Objective Interpersonal A monologue A dialogue Durable Ephemeral Scannable Only linearly accessible Planned Spontaneous Highly structured Loosely structured Syntactically complex Syntactically simple Concerned with past and future Concerned with the present Formal Informal Expository Narrative Argument oriented Event oriented Decontextualised Contextualised Abstract Concrete 6

28 STRATEGIES 3 Speech And Writing The Continuum view Traditional Writing Face to Face Speech < > Word processors Telephones Videophones, Teleconferencing (Jenkins, 2003: ) Some features of the grammar of spoken English: Heads (or left dislocation ) Tails (or reinforcement ) Ellipsis Word order (Jenkins, 2003: ) 7

29 SOCIAL FUNCTIONS Why a ready made conception of discourse cannot explain everything: In terms of quantity: how do you know this is enough? Embarrassing silences In terms of quality: can you be sure of every single aspect you decide to share? In terms of relation/relevance: coherence, immediacy and establishing priorities In terms of manner: is this always a second order kind of maxim? Can an automaton speak proper English? Can it interact by means of language? The importance of the conversational contract (generally implicit; sometimes explicit) 8

30 STRUCTURE Two major views of interaction: Conversation Analysis (CA) vs. Discourse Analysis (DA) Why CA rejects the views of DA, and vice versa Major advantages and disadvantages Points of convergence and points of divergence Main elements/terms in CA: Ethnometodology Naturally occurring/unedited speech Non verbal communication How conversation is structured Notation system(s) Repair mechanisms Main elements/terms in DA: From interaction to discourse acts Analysing monologue The importance of intonation cues, etc. Exporting the model: from teaching situations to literary texts 9

31 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 1 Based on a series of proposals elaborated at Birmingham University in the 1970 s and 1980 s Historically connected with J.R. Firth and functional approaches Interaction: a set of free transactions, delimited through intonation, not topic Transaction: a set of exchanges: preliminary, opening, challenging, reopening Exchange: a set of moves: framing, focusing, support, opening, bound opening, reopening, challenging 10

32 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 2 Move: a set of (discourse) acts: starter, marker, summons, qualifier, metastatement, conclusion, comment, accept, acknowledge, reply, react, excuse, informative, elicit, accusation, prompt, command, evaluation, greeting Act: the minimal informative unit in terms of DA 11

33 CONVERSATION ANALYSIS Based on a series of proposals elaborated in American universities in the 1970 s and 1980 s Historically connected with American sociolinguistics and communication studies Different fields of study, including: Turn organization and turn taking Adjacency pairs Sequences, e.g. opening, topic initiators, q a sequences, subsidiary sequences, closing sequences Repair mechanisms (self and other repair) Kinesics The notation system 12

34 2. Varieties of spoken English Geographical aspects: As first, second or foreign language? Social aspects: In what kinds of situations, for what kinds of domains? International relations The media: The press, Advertising, Broadcasting, Cinema, Popular music International travel International safety Education Communications (Crystal, 2003: ) 13

35 2.1. From Standard English (SE) to English as an International Language (EIL) Standard, non standard or sub standard? Attitudes towards English in Britain in the last fifty years. Acrolects, mesolects and basilects. From the influence from within (BBC English?) to the influence from outside (GA, Caribbean, Indian, etc.). Towards a new standard? 14

36 2.2. English as a First, Second (ESL) and Foreign Language (EFL) Kachru s circles: inner, outer and expanding circles. Extending the model: different scales, different realities. What makes a second language speaker? Who is a foreign language speaker? With what degree of proficiency? Monolingual English speakers (MES), Bilingual English speakers (BES) and Non bilingual English speakers (NBES) 15

37 2.3. English as a means for international communication Who do you regularly use English to communicate with? In what kind of situation? For what kind(s) of domains? Orally? In written format? Through a highly structured kind of speech? Should exposure to different varieties be a priority in current teaching situations? 16

38 3. English for oral international communication Trying to overcome differences. Trying to overcome difficulties. Establishing priorities. Establishing a model. 17

39 3.1. Pronunciation A new canon? No longer R.P.? G.A., N.R.P. and E.I.L. Rhoticity. Stress based vs. syllable based. Euro English? Other models for reference? 18

40 3.2. Meaning and vocabulary A common core vocabulary? Peculiarities in lexis in different parts of the world: America Africa Asia Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific 19

41 3.3. Text, grammar and text grammar From loose sentences to odd looking (odd sounding?) constructions. It s a matter of concordance, eh? How do you want your English to sound like? Grammatical anathema, change and the canon. 20

42 3.4. Discourse and pragmatics Different interactive strategies? Is being a native an advantage? How? When? To what extent? Intercultural pragmatics. The importance of establishing a common ground. 21