1 Language universals
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1 AS LX 500 Topics: Language Uniersals Fall 2010, Sepember 21 4a. Anisymmery 1 Language uniersals Subjec-erb agreemen and order Bach (1971) discusses wh-quesions across SO and SO languages, hypohesizing:... ha Quesion Moemen will neer occur in languages ha hae he deep and surface order SO... As far as am aware, his conclusion is correc. n fac if we look merely a he surface order, we find a definie negaie correlaion beween Quesion-word Moemen and word-final ordering. n boh Greenberg (1963) and [Ulan (1978)] Quesion Moemen seems o be confined o nonso languages. should be made clear ha am no claiming he opposie implicaion, since here are SO languages (for example, Thai and Arabic) wihou Quesion Moemen. Subjec-erb agreemen and order From Greenberg (1963) comes Uniersal 33. He wries: A furher obseraion abou noun-erb agreemen may be made. There are cases in which his agreemen is regularly suspended. n all such cases, if order is inoled, he following seems o hold: Uniersal 33 When number agreemen beween he noun and erb is suspended and he rule is based on order, he case is always one in which he erb precedes and he erb is in he singular. 2 Anisymmery X synax 1
2 As we e seen a couple of imes, here was a hypohesis ha become widely acceped in he synacic lieraure ha senence srucures are made from a emplae or schema, he X srucure. XP WP spec YP 1 X adjunc X YP 2 adjunc X ZP head comp X Word order parameers The way his srucure was usually iewed was as a kind of mobile. A language migh choose which side of he head is complemen goes on (he headparameer ), and which side of is X is specifier goes on (he spec-parameer ). As far as he synax is concerned, hese are he same same hierarchical srucure. So, Japanese, an SO language, would be spec-iniial, head-final. English, an SO language, would be spec-iniial, head-iniial. Bu where are he spec-final languages? The anisymmery of synax Kayne (1994) akes a close look a he X heory, and argues ha we shouldn assume ha i is buil-in as par of UG. For one hing, he argues ha i proides oo many degrees of freedom. Things we expec o see aren here, and now we hae o explain why. Kayne s basic proposal is ha here is a sric mapping beween he hierarchy and he order in which hings are pronounced. The anisymmery of synax Things ha are, roughly, higher in he ree are always pronounced before hings ha are lower in he ree. He formalizes his quie rigorously, bu he boom line is ha: Since a specifier is higher han boh he head and he complemen, a specifier is always pronounced before boh head and complemen. Since heads are higher han he heads of heir complemens, he head is always pronounced before he complemen. 2
3 ( Higher means asymmerically c-commanding. ) Rules of pronunciaion Kayne s larger proposal is ha his is how he pronunciaion par of our language sysem deals wih he hierarchical rees. n order o uer a senence, you hae o say somehing firs. Furhermore, he proposed ha he pronunciaion sysem is kind of dumb. simply can handle hings which aren ordered wih respec o one anoher. f a ree were eer creaed ha didn hae his anisymmerical propery, he pronunciaion aemp would simply fail. This follows in paricular from his Linear orrespondence Axiom, which says ha he hierarchy defines a linear ordering of he erminal nodes of he ree. SO or OS? To his poin, nohing in principle requires ha he basic order be specifierhead-complemen i could as easily be complemen head specifier, ha would sill saisfy he sric mapping beween hierarchy and surface order. Bu i s clear from jus looking a he languages ha are ou here ha, if eiher of hose is going o be he basic order, i s going o hae o be he spec-head-comp one. Paricularly he specifier. Specifiers are almos always o he lef wih jus abou no excepions. 3 Agreemen and ypology Preposiional languages s. posposiional languages So, a language ha has preposiions has a srucure somehing like he op ree, where he P is higher han he N inside he NP, and so is pronounced firs. A language wih posposiions mus hae sared he same way, bu hen moed he NP oer he P (a kind moemen we re well familiar wih by now), so ha he NP is hen higher han he P. 3 PP (spec) P P PP NP P P NP
4 Agreemen Kayne cies Ken Hale as haing obsered ha here are posposiional languages (like Naajo), where he adposiion agrees wih he noun phrase bu ha here seem no o be SO (preposiional) languages ha hae his propery. Kayne noes Hungarian, where he P-NP order is only possible for hose Ps ha neer show agreemen. f agreemen is somehing ha happens beween specifiers and heads (which is frequenly he way i is hough abou he subjec in he specifier of P, for example, ofen agrees wih he ensed elemen in ), hen we hae a way o undersand his asymmery. And wihou he all languages are spec-head-comp proposal, we wouldn hae expeced ha. More agreemen Greenberg s (1963) uniersal 33 says ha one can find languages where here is number agreemen beween he subjec and erb when he subjec precedes he erb bu no when i follows he erb Arabic is one such case bu here aren languages ha go he oher way around (agreemen in S order bu no in S order). Same explanaion as wih he preposiions S order could hae arisen from a srucure when S is in he specifier of, where has moed o. Bu S order could no arise ha way, if we hae S order, he is necessarily higher han he S, and so he S can be in is specifier. 2 s. -penulimae Among he asymmeries in he language ypology is he fac ha here are quie a number of languages (Germanic ones paricularly) ha hae he erb second propery he erb seems o always need o follow somehing, bu i doesn hae o be he subjec. (aderb S O, or S O, or O S.) Bu here don seem o be any erb penulimae languages. Again, he spechead-complemen srucure explains ha if he 2 propery arises from geing he erb up o he and puing he peripheral phrase in he specifier of P (like in wh-moemen in English). 4
5 4 SO languages SO s. SO This kind of proposal works fine for English and hinese and a lo of he worlds languages ha are relaiely ransparenly SO (ha is, spec-head-comp). Bu een more languages are SO ( spec-comp-head ), and by hypohesis hose languages are ou of heir basic order. n fac, quie a number of SO languages are acually S-O- languages where he erb, he ense, and he complemenizer are fused ogeher, in ha order, bu aggluinaie, where each morpheme is sill idenifiable. Geing from SO o SO: 1 P (spec) P (spec) P Subjec (spec) Firs moe he O. P (spec) Objec P (spec) P Subjec Objec Geing from SO o SO: 2 Then he. Then P. 5
6 P (spec) P P P P P Subjec Subjec Objec Objec Predicions: Tha-race n a subse of SO languages, i is bad o ask a subjec quesion ou of an embedded senence ha has ha. (1) a. Wha did you hink [John bough _ ]? b. Wha did you hink [ha John bough _ ]? c. Who did you hink [ _ bough he paining ]? d. * Who did you hink [ha _ bough he paining ]? f his is due ha being jus aboe he place where he subjec used o be, his paern shouldn happen in head-final languages. Kayne doesn know of any repors. Predicions: Quesion formaion n a lo of languages, you form a wh-quesion by moing he wh-word o he fron ha is, moing i ino he specifier of P. Some languages don hae wh-moemen hough i s exremely rare in SO languages. n Japanese, he wh-word says where i belongs. Bu, hen again, where could i go? (2) a. Taroo-ga hon-o Taro-NOM book-a Taro bough a book. kaimasia. bough.pol 6
7 b. Taroo-ga nani-o Taro-NOM wha-a Wha did Taro buy? kaimasia bough.pol ka? Q Ga? Wa? And some more houghs off he handou abou ga and wa as well. Prin. References Bach, Emmon Quesions. Linguisic nquiry 2: Denning, Keih & Suzanne Kemmer (eds.) On Language. Sanford Uniersiy Press. Greenberg, Joseph H Some uniersals of grammar wih paricular reference o he order of meaningful elemens. n Joseph H. Greenberg (ed.) Uniersals of language, ambridge, MA: MT Press. Reprined in Denning & Kemmer (1990), pp Kayne, Richard The anisymmery of synax. No. 25 in Linguisic nquiry monographs, ambridge, MA: MT Press. Ulan, Russell Seme general characerisics of inerrogaie sysems. n Joseph H. Greenberg (ed.) Uniersals of human languages, ol. 4: Synax, Sanford: Sanford Uniersiy Press. 7
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