Developing Reading and Writing in Second-Language Learners: Cross-Linguistic Relationships
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1 Developing Reading and Writing in Second-Language Learners: Cross-Linguistic Relationships Khalil El-Saghir Wayne State University January 2010 BBE 9010 Dr. Marc Rosa
2 Abstract This paper reviews Developing Reading and Writing in Second-Language Learners, which draws lessons from the Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. It focuses mainly on cross-linguistic relationships and the intervening influences that an English Language Learner (ELL) is subject to in the process of second language acquisition (SLA). In addition to highlighting the main findings of the review, the paper provides a critical analysis, focusing on issues pertaining to ELLs cross-linguistic influences, more specifically transfer and target language (English) influences
3 Introduction This paper reviews Developing Reading and Writing in Second-Language Learners, a volume edited by Diane August and Timothy Shanahan that draws lessons from the Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. The aim of that report was to understand how first- (L1) and second-language (L2) literacy development may be interrelated. It reviewed a large body of literature and drew recommendations for developing a comprehensive theory of L2 literacy development. The fourth chapter of the book, the focus of this paper, titled Cross-Linguistic Relationships in Second-Language Learners and edited by a group of researchers, focuses on research addressing relationships across languages and attempts to find answers to the following three questions: 1. What is the relationship between language-minority children s first- and second-language oral development in domains related to literacy? 2. What is the relationship between oral development in the first language and literacy development in the second language, including English as a foreign language? 3. What is the relationship between literacy skills acquired in the first language and literacy skills acquired in the second language, including national languages that are not English? (Genesee et al, 2008, p. 61) The studies reviewed cover aspects of cross-language effects in the domains of phonology, vocabulary development, grammatical development, literacy knowledge, processes, and strategies, employing a variety of methodologies, the most frequent being error analyses, correlational/regression analyses, and between- and within-group comparisons. Many of the studies were conducted within the contrastive analysis framework. The frameworks of the discussions of cross-language issues are centered on the following: transfer, target language influences, interlanguage theories, underlying cognitive abilities, and moderator variables
4 The focus of this paper is on cross-linguistic relationships and the intervening influences, more specifically language transfer, that an English Language Learner (ELL) is subject to in the process of second-language acquisition (SLA). Book Review and Critical Analysis The fourth chapter of the book covers cross-linguistic relationships in L2 learners, mostly based on studies that are oriented toward one of two theories: the contrastive analysis hypothesis and the interdependence hypothesis. While contrastive analysis hypothesis (Lado, 1964) focuses mainly on the differences between L1 and L2 and attempts to predict L2 errors, based on the structural differences between the two languages, interdependence hypothesis, on the other hand, focuses on the similarities between L1 and L2 and postulates that acquisition of L1 and L2 is interdependent; that is, development of the L1 can influence and facilitate development of the L2 (Cummins, 1978, 1979). But, first, what is the definition of transfer? Odlin (1989, p. 27) defines transfer as the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired. Bransford and Schwartz (1998, p. 68), in their direct application, characterizes transfer as the ability to directly apply one s previous learning to a new setting or problem. Over the years, several other terms and phrases have been alternately used to refer to this cross-linguistic influence phenomenon, such as language mixing (Weinreich, 1953; Selinker, 1972), linguistic interference and language transfer (Lado, 1957), and interlanguage (Selinker, 1972). There are two types of language transfer: (a) substratum transfer, which is the classic type of cross-linguistic influence, studied by most researchers in the field, involving the influence of L1 on L2 acquisition, and (b) borrowing transfer, which is the least studied phenomenon involving the influence of L2 on L1. Additionally, language transfer can be either positive or negative. Positive transfer occurs when the influences facilitate language acquisition, especially when the structural differences between two languages are relatively few (e.g., English and Spanish). And negative transfer occurs - 4 -
5 when the influences impede language acquisition, mainly because of the vast structural differences between L1 and L2 (e.g., English and Arabic). As early as 1945, cross-linguistic relationships and the impact on SLA had been under researchers scrutiny. In his Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language, Fries wrote: The most effective materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner. (1945, p. 9) Fries (1945) and Lado (1957) are considered the founders of the contrastive analysis hypothesis, in which structural analyses of both native and target languages are constructed, similarities and differences are identified, and potential cross-linguistic problems, called initially interference and later transfer, are predicted. From the onset, transfer influence was identified as either positive or negative. This hypothesis gave rise, a decade later, to error analysis. Cummins distinguishes between language for academic and higher-order cognitive purposes (CALP, Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) and language for day-to-day interpersonal communication (BICS, Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills). He hypothesizes that academic proficiency transfers across languages such that students who have developed literacy in their L1 will tend to make stronger progress in acquiring literacy in their L2 (Cummins, 2000). Even after more than half a century of research, it is still debatable as to what extent transfer is responsible for facilitating or impeding L2 acquisition. Extreme views range from those suggesting that L2 learners rely almost entirely on their L1 in the process of SLA (Lado, 1957) to others suggesting that transfer was largely unimportant in the creation of interlanguage (Dulay and Burt, 1974). Some researchers even suggested altogether abandoning, or restricting, the use of the term 'transfer'(e.g., Corder, 1983). Genesee et al (2008, p. 68) asserts that although transfer cannot be the sole source of influence in L2 proficiency, ample studies provide evidence for transfer with regard to specific linguistic structure/properties and psycholinguistic processes. Generally agreed upon factors that could affect L1 transfer in L2 acquisition may be (a) learner-related (e.g., age, motivation, L1 proficiency), (b) language/culture-related
6 (similarities and differences between L1 and L2 and the two cultures), and (c) sociolinguistic-related (the social context in which the learner is attempting to acquire L2, such as family, school and community, as well as quantity and quality of input, and the learning environment). In his survey of bilingualism, Weinreich (1953) provides evidence that the effects of cross-linguistic influences are hardly monolithic. Rather, he suggests that these effects vary considerably according to the social context of the language contact situation. Transfer is also more likely to occur if psychotypology - learners perception of the similarities between their first and second languages (Kellerman, 1977) is a positive factor; it is more likely to be constrained due to the existence of the more susceptible unmarked features (e.g., devoiced final consonants) between the two languages (Eckman, 1977, 1985; Hyltenstam, 1984). Recent studies of contrastive analysis hypothesis connect transfer to other factors, such as developmental process and language/literacy proficiency (Ellis, 1994; Odlin, 1989). More recently, Murphy (2003) and Wei (2003) provides more evidence of transfer manifestations in L2 acquisition with linguistic, cultural, social and personal factors. Although cross-linguistic influences have been proved to have major impact on L2 development, they do not, however, account for all facets of the relationship between L1 and L2 acquisition. Other factors of this relationship can be attributed to (a) target language or developmental influences (e.g., errors attributed to deep orthographic structure of English), (b) interlanguage or a grammatical system with its own internal organizing principals (Towell & Hawkins, 1994, p. 23), (c) underlying cognitive abilities (Geva & Ryan, 1993), including working memory, phonological short-term memory, phonological awareness, and phonological recording, or (d) moderator variables, such as the learner s level of proficiency in L1 and L2, home language, socioeconomic and generational status, instruction, and personality Genesee et al (2008, p ). During the late 1970s, and due to the lost of popularity of behaviorist theories, upon which most early contrastive analysis studies were based, error analysis arose as the most useful tool in the study of L2 acquisition. Until now, most studies employ error analysis to expose the difficulties the learner faces throughout L2 acquisition process, as those difficulties in the L2 appear as errors in production
7 Studying learners errors is significant to (a) the teachers in their attempt to develop and modify lesson plans that appropriately fit the needs of the learners, (b) the learners themselves as they learn from their mistakes, and (c) the researchers who are trying to understand how certain language is learned by an individual or a group of learners who share similar linguistic backgrounds, what difficulties they face, and what strategies they employ in the process. Proponents of error analysis approach to the study of L2 acquisition assets that researchers paid too much attention to predicting what the learners will do, based on L1/L2 structural contrasting analyses, while not paid enough attention to the study of what the learners actually do (Gass & Schachter, 1989). They stress that many language learning errors do not result from L1 interference but rather from the strategies employed by the learner in the acquisition of L2. Slobin (1982) notes that whereas English uses word order to signal who is doing what to whom, speakers of other languages rely on case markings or other means. MacWhinney & Bates (1989) assume that if a language provides clear cues as to what grammatical markers and structures mean, children will be able to use them even in the early stages of acquisition. This assumption helps in making predictions about which cues are most salient to children in different languages. Conclusion During the last decade, empirical research in second-language acquisition provided solid support for the significance of cross-linguistic influences. It is hard to imagine how, for many years, cross-linguistic influences on second-language acquisition could be utterly denied by many linguists while, at the same time, cross-cultural influences on ELLs were treated as undisputed facts, although largely viewed through a negative prism. However, social, cultural, and even political and economic changes in any given society can certainly affect the environment of research in all domains, notwithstanding linguistics and education. The significant impact of globalization in the last two decades is so vast that collective efforts may protect against further skew toward ethnocentricity and promotes learners-centered research
8 In addition to the challenges that ELLs face throughout the process of their English language acquisition, those learners bring an additional set of linguistic resources and skills and cultural knowledge and experiences that can foster the acquisition process. However, most contrastive and error analyses-based studies, attempting to understand the nature and extent of cross-language effects on SLA, still focus mainly on the challenges and deemphasize those linguistic assets. To enhance our understanding of cross-linguistic influences in SLA, additional conceptualizations of language transfer is warranted and, as Brandford and Schwartz (1998) have argued, analysis of transfer must be broadened to include the notion of preparedness for future learning. Finally, the analysis of second language acquisition theories, strategies, and practices must be done in relation to the apparent language socialization patterns of the culture in which the language is acquired. Additionally, the advancement of L2 acquisition cannot be fully reached unless future research focuses more on the development of pedagogical strategies that encompass ELLs linguistic and cultural assets
9 References Bransford, J.D. & Schwartz, D.L. (1998). Rethinking transfer: A simple proposal with multiple implications. Review of Research in Education, 24, Corder, S.P. (1983). A role for the mother tongue. In S. Gass, and L. Selinker (Eds.), Language Transfer in Language Learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Cummins, J. (1978). Educational implications of mother tongue maintenance in minoritylanguage groups. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 35, Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49(2), Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In California State Department of Education (Ed.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework. Los Angeles, CA: National Dissemination and Assessment Center. Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Dulay, H. & Burt, M. (1974). Natural sequences in child second language acquisition. Language Learning, 24, Eckman, F.R. (1977). Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language Learning, 27, Eckman, F.R. (1985). Some theoretical and pedagogical implications of the markedness differential hypothesis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 7, Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Fries, C.C. (1945). Teaching and learning English as a foreign language. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Gass, S.M. & Schachter, J. (Eds.). (1989). Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Genesee, F. & al (2008) Cross-linguistic relationships in second-language learners. In D. August & T. Shanahan (Eds.), Developing reading and writing in second-language learners. New York, NY: Routledge Geva, E. & Ryan, B. (1993). Linguistic and cognitive correlates of academic skills in first and second languages. Language Learning, 43(1), Hyltenstam, K. (1984). The use of typological markedness conditions as predictors in second language acquisition: The case of pronominal copies in relative clauses. In R. W. Anderson (Ed.), Second languages: A cross-linguistic perspective. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Kellerman, E. (1977). Toward a characterization of transfer and metaphor interpretation in second language learning. Interlanguage Studies Bulletin, 2, Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across Cultures. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. Lado, R. (1964). Language teaching: A scientific approach. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
10 MacWhinney, B. & Bates, E. (Eds.). (1989). The cross-linguistic study of sentence processing. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Murphy, S. (2003). Second Language Transfer during Third Language Acquisition. TESOL and Applied Linguistics, 3(2), Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 3, Slobin, D. I. (1982). Universal and particular in the acquisition of language. In E. Wanner & L. R. Gleitman (Eds.), Language acquisition: The state of the art (pp ). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Towell, R. & Hawkins, R. (1994). Approaches to second language acquisition. Bristol, UK: Longdunn Press Wei, L. (2003). Syntactic binding, semantic binding and explanation of crossover effects. Foreign Languages Research, 3, Weinreich, U. (1953). Languages in contact: Findings and problems. New York, NY: Mouton Publishers
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