SPEECH. Linguistics. What is it? Linguistics. Acoustics. Physiology

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1 Speech Production Speech Perception Speech Analysis Speech Synthesis Speech Recognition Speech Coding Human Factors Hearing SPEECH What is it? Linguistics Acoustics Physiology Speaker The Speech Chain (Denes & Pinson) Listener Linguistics Units of language. What are they? Words? Syllables? Sounds? What are the individual sounds in language? Phonemes. How are they defined? Linguistic level Physiological level Acoustic level Physiological level Linguistic level

2 Physiology This relates to how the sounds are produced through neural and muscular activity. We set air coming up from the lungs in motion using our vocal cords and then we can channel this air through the vocal tract using out tongue, lips, etc. Acoustics This describes the generation and transmission of the sounds. How air is set in motion. We generate sound waves. What do they look like? We can classify the different sounds we make according to how we set the air in motion and how we channel the airstream through the vocal tract.

3 2.0 SPEECH PRODUCTION 2.1 Anatomy of Speech Organs This is about the sounds we use when we speak and the relationships between them. In linguistic terms speech production is concerned with phonetics the actual speech sounds of human languages; how they are made by moving various organs in the vocal tract (articulatory phonetics), perceived by the human ear and their physical properties (acoustic phonetics). phonology how the sounds are organised into meaningful groupings (sentences). This is concerned with speech at a more abstract level and is more concerned with the thought processes involved in speech. The source of most speech occurs in the larynx. It contains two folds of tissue called the vocal folds or vocal cords which can open and shut like a pair of fans. The gap between the vocal cords is called the glottis and as air is forced through the glottis the vocal cords will start to vibrate and modulate the air flow. This process is known as phonation. The frequency of vibration determines the pitch of the voice and for a male is typically in the range Hz whereas for a female voice the range can be up to 500Hz. Amplitude Opening phase Closing phase Closure Period = 12.5ms Fundamental frequency = 1/.0125 = 80Hz 50 Time (ms) Glottal Pulse Rosenberg JASM 49, 1971

4 Intensity Spectrum of glottal pulse Frequency (Hz) Harmonics of spectrum spaced at 80 Hz, corresponding to pitch period of 12.5ms. The vocal tract consists of the air passages from the vocal cords to the lips, including the nasal cavity. The vocal tract behaves like a resonance chamber, amplifying and attenuating certain frequencies. The shape and size of the vocal tract can be modified by moving the lips, tongue, velum, etc. which results in continually changing resonant frequencies. Consequently a spectrum of frequencies is produced which contains peaks at certain frequencies. The nasal cavity can be either included or excluded by opening or closing the soft palate or velum. Sounds are classified as nasal if they are produced by the passage of air through the nasal cavity. Intensity Spectrum of glottal pulse filtered by the vocal tract Frequency (Hz) The shape and size of the vocal tract can be changed by means of the articulatory organs. These are The lips The teeth The alveolar ridge The palate The velum The tongue The jaws Harmonics of spectrum spaced at 80 Hz, corresponding to pitch period of 12.5ms.

5 2.2 Sounds The individual sounds of speech are known as phones but these sounds differ slightly according to their context. For example the words key and caw both begin with a k sound but the tongue position is not quite the same in each case. In fact a native speaker probably doesn't notice the difference. In this situation k and c are said to belong to the same class of sounds and we distinguish this class by the phoneme /k/. A phoneme, therefore, is an abstract linguistic unit and is defined as the smallest meaningful contrastive unit in the language. The group of phones which are placed together to make the phoneme are called allophones. Classifying Sounds - Consonants and vowels The classification of sounds is determined by the manner and point of articulation A consonant is a speech sound produced as a result of a partial or complete obstruction to the airstream somewhere in the vocal tract. Voicing does not count as obstruction. Vowels are sounds produced with no obstruction to the airstream as it passes through the vocal tract. Resonance is decisive in vowel production and all vowel sounds are, therefore, voiced. Plosives(stops) Consonant produced as a result of a complete obstruction somewhere in the vocal tract. Made up of three successive phases. 1. Two organs come together to form a complete closure - obstruction or closure phase 2. After phase 1 lungs are still contracting so there's a build up of pressure - compression phase 3. Closure is released and air rushes out - release phase. Voiceless - p, t, k pit tip cot Voiced - b, d, g bit dip got Fricatives Consonants produced as a result of near obstruction somewhere in the vocal tract. If the passage is sufficiently narrow and the pressure behind the constriction is high enough then the airflow becomes fast enough to generate turbulence at the end of the constriction. Voiceless f (as in far) th (as in thin) s (as in sit) sh (as in shut) h (as in hood) Voiced v (as in van) dh (as in this), z (as in zip) zh (as in pleasure) Affricates Special type of plosives whose release stage is slow and lax enough to result in a perceptible fricative sound at the end of the articulation. Voiceless Voiced ch (as in church) j (as in jug)

6 Nasals The velum is lowered during nasal sounds so that there is airflow out of the nostrils. The only nasal sounds in English are consonants, during which the oral tract is completely closed at the lips(m), or with the tongue against the palate(n, ng). These sounds are all voiced. Approximants These form a class of sounds which lie on the border between consonants and vowels. There's a marginal degree of constriction. They can be sub-divided into liquids (l, r) and glides (w, y). l is also sometimes called a lateral. All these sounds are voiced. Consonants Bilabial Labio dental Dental Alveolar Palato- Alveolar t Palatal Velar Glottal Plosives vl vd p b d k g Fricatives vl f th s sh vd v dh z zh Affricates vl ch vd j Nasals m n ng Laterals Approximants w r y l h Vowels Vowels are sounds produced with no obstruction to the airstream as it passes through the vocal tract. Resonance is decisive in vowel production and all vowel sounds are, therefore, voiced. There are three main organs of speech involved in changing the size of the air chamber. These are the lips - rounding, spreading the lower jaw - lowered, raised the tongue - raised, flattened, brought forward, etc. The tongue is the most important and the tongue position is taken as the primary criterion in classifying vowels. The vowel zone can be classified in terms of how high or low the tongue can be, and how far forward or back it can be. Also, the lips can be either rounded, neutral or spread.

7 Vowels/Diphthongs front central back Front Middle Back ee as in feet er as in heard ar as in car i as in did u as in cut o as in cod e as in red a as in about or as in board aa as in mat oo as in wood uu as in rude ee uu o high mid low Dipthongs ou as in pound ie as in tie oa as in boat oi as in toy ia as in deer ur as in poor ei as in their ai as in make front high mid-high mid-low central back low Vowel /uu/ Vowel /ar/ as in rude as in car High, back, rounded front, low, unrounded

8 /ee/ /ar/ /uu/ Vowel /ee/ as in feet High, front,spread Wrong /r/ /o/ /ng/ Moving /m/ /uu/ /v/ /i/ /ng/

9 Southampton /s/ /ou/ /th/ /aa/ /m/ /p/ /t/ /a/ /n/ Sixteen /s/ /i/ /k/ /s/ /t/ /ee/ /n/ Vocal Tract ( r + ) The resonant frequencies are 1 2 c, r = 0,1,2, L c 3c 5c i.e.,,,... 4L 4L 4L For L = 17 cm (typical length of vocal tract for a male), c = 340m/s we get the first three resonant frequencies as 500Hz, 1500Hz and 2500 Hz. Area (sq. cm.) Distance from glottis (mm)

10 FFT An N-point FFT uses N sample points. It will decompose the signal into N sinusoids with frequencies equally spaced in the range 0-F s where F s is the sampling frequency. For real values these frequencies are symmetrically placed with respect to F s /2 and so only N/2+1 of these frequencies are required. Spectrogram Acoustic Analysis If we want frequencies equally spaced at 45Hz with a sampling frequency of 16kHz then we need an FFT with 16000/45 = 355 points. However, since we need N to be a power of 2 then we have to use either 256 or 512. Taking, say, 256 samples of a speech signal corresponds to windowing the signal with a rectangular window. This introduces high frequencies associated with the edges of the window. This effect can be alleviated by using a smoother window such as a Hamming or Hanning which have a bell shape e.g. 0.5(1 - cos(2πk/n)) 0 k N 256 point FFT for file wav This is a waveform with frequencies 100, 300 and 500Hz. Note that the FFT is too small to identify the individual frequencies point FFT for file wav This is a waveform with frequencies 100, 300 and 500Hz. Note the three peaks at 100,300 and 500Hz.

11 1 Formants 512 (1024) (256) 32 (64) [ee] ([i]) [ar] ([a]) [uu] ([u]) Broadband spectrogram is good for formant tracking 3.0 Speech Synthesis Imperial Academy of St Petersberg put the following questions as the subject of their annual prize. 1. What is the nature and character of the sounds of the vowels a, e, i, o, u that make them so different from one another? 2. Can an instrument be constructed like the vox humana pipes of an organ which shall accurately express the sounds of the vowels. Winner was Kratzenstein st formant 2nd formant 3rd formant A E I O U

12 Von Kempelen s speaking machine (1791) (Wheatstone s reconstruction Voder (Voice Operation Demonstrator) 1939

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