Lecture 1. Distinctive features (1)
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1 Phonology Q Max Wheeler 1 Lecture 1. Distinctive features (1) 0. Introduction Distinctive features in phonology offer a more sophisticated, more economical approach to the description, definition, comparison, and classification of speech sounds, and classes of sounds. The idea of a feature with two values, positive (+) and negative ( ), is not unfamiliar. You know about sounds being either voiced ([+voice]) or voiceless ([ voice]), or of vowels being rounded ([+round]) or unrounded ([ round]). A binary distinctive feature is one that has two possible values, + or, divides, or classifies, the sounds of a language into two groups. Combinations of features provide for more specific classifications, or groupings, of sounds. For example, in English, the combination of features [+voice, nasal] picks out the following phonemes: all vowels and /j w l b d d v z / Natural classes. The objective of a good system of distinctive features is to permit the economical definition of natural classes of sounds, while making the definition of unnatural classes difficult or impossible. A natural class of sounds is a class of sounds which work in the same way in the phonologies of languages. We have already mentioned many such classes, such as the class of back vowels, the class of voiceless plosives, the class of labial consonants, the class of high front vowels and /j/. Members of a natural class usually share some identifiable articulatory or acoustic property. Unnatural classes of sounds would be groups like { i } { b h j l } { m n f v } { p t } The number of possible groups the sounds of a language is enormous. The number of classes of n items is 2 n 1. So if a language had 30 phonemes, they could be grouped together in 673,741,823 different ways, most of which would be unnatural classes. Formulation of phonological rules Distinctive features are used in the precise formulation of phonological processes. We shall pursue this topic in later lectures and seminars. For example, a language might have a rule: All true consonants are voiced, when preceded by a nasal consonant Or, in features, using other abbreviatory conventions: [+consonantal] [+voice] / +cons +nasal You will see that phonology books differ, in detail, at least, about what distinctive features they use, and about how they should be defined. Establishing the best set of features, usable for any language, is a topic of ongoing research.
2 Phonology Q Max Wheeler Major class features: [consonantal], [sonorant], [syllabic] Definitions of these and most other features are on page 5 of the Distinctive Feature handout (from M.S. Whitley, Generative phonology workbook). [+consonantal] sounds have constriction at some point of articulation in the supra-glottal oral cavity. NB this means consonants with laryngeal place of articulation (h ) are classified as [ cons]. In some books the definition of [consonantal] differs from this. [sonorant]: the definition of this feature refers to the vowel-like acoustic properties shared by [+son] sounds, namely, vowels, liquids and nasals. [ son] sounds (plosives, affricates and fricatives) are known as obstruents. [syllabic] characterizes the role a segment plays in syllable structure. In any sequence there will be as many [+syllabic] segments as there are syllables. These three major class features allow the definition of 17 groupings of the six major sound types illustrated in the table under 1 on the DF handout. This is 17 out of 63 logically possible combinations of the six types (2 6 1) Further major class features: [approximant] The feature [approximant] is a relatively recent addition, not to be found in older text books. Note: as well as approximant consonants such as [l, r, j, w], the feature [+approx] also includes all vowels. 2. Manner features [+continuant] refers to sounds which have a continuous flow of air through the oral cavity. It is sometimes defined so as to mention centrally through the oral cavity, making lateral consonants [ continuant]. Other phonologists define it so as to include laterals. This disagreement arises essentially because languages treat laterals differently. When using [continuant] you should explain whether you define it to include or exclude laterals. [delayed release] is used only among sounds which are [ cont], to distinguish affricates [+del rel] from plosives [ del rel]. The feature [nasal] means just what it suggests. (Nasalized vowels are also [+nasal].) The feature [lateral] means just what its name suggests. [distributed] is technically a manner feature, though it is used to distinguish places of articulation. [+distributed] sounds are produced with a constriction that extends for a considerable distance (> 1.5mm?) along the direction of airflow; [ distr] sounds are produced with a constriction that extends only a short distance in this direction (Chomsky & Halle 1968)
3 Phonology Q Max Wheeler 3 In [ distr] sounds constriction is made with an edge against a surface, e.g. teeth against lip (labiodental), or teeth against blade of tongue (interdental), or tip of tongue against teeth or alveoli (apico-dental or apico-alveolar), or tip of tongue turned up behind alveoli (retroflex). In [+distr] sounds contact is made with a surface against another surface, e.g. lip on lip (bilabial) or blade of tongue against teeth or alveoli (lamino-dental or lamino-alveolar). So we can distinguish between labiodentals [ distr] and bilabials [+distr] interdentals [ distr] and lamino-dentals or lamino-alveolars [+distr] apicals [ distr] and laminals [+distr] retroflex [ ant, +cor, distr] and other post-alveolar [ ant, +cor, +distr] 3. Laryngeal features The feature [voice] means just what it suggests: [+voice] = voiced, [ voice] = voiceless.. [spread glottis] is used to distinguish among voiceless sounds so that those which are aspirated, such as [p ], [k ], (also including h and ) are [+spread glottis]. [constricted glottis]: for [+constr] segments the vocal cords are tense and drawn together, while for [ constr] segments this is not the case. Thus [ ], laryngealized vowels (e.g. [u ]), and laryngealized sonorant consonants (e.g. [m ], glottalized obstruents (e.g. preglottalized [ p] or ejective [p ]) are [+constr]. So are implosives ([,, ]). Other segments are [ constr] (Gussenhoven & Jacobs 1998: 71). 4. Place of articulation features [anterior] divides places of articulation into two, sounds made with contact at the teeth ridge (alveoli) or further forward [+anterior] versus those made further back [ anterior]. [coronal] focuses on whether the front of the tongue is involved [+coronal], or not [ coronal]. [anterior] and [coronal] together allow four places of articulation to be distinguished, which is adequate for most languages. [labial] focuses on whether the lips are actively involved. Some recent works in phonology avoid using [coronal] and [labial] as binary features which can have + or values, preferring to use unary features for the main places of articulation (see DF handout).
4 Phonology Q Max Wheeler 4 Some authors use [strident], which is an acoustic-based feature, to distinguish among places of articulation of fricatives and affricates. [+strident] sounds have more high frequency turbulent noise: [+strident] { f v s z t d } [ strident] { } Note that Gussenhoven & Jacobs (1998: 76) define [+strident] so as to make it equivalent to sibilant {s z t d } 5.1. Tongue body features; vowel features The use of distinctive features for vowels is not entirely satisfactory. To a large extent the feature system proposed by Chomsky & Halle (1968) for English is still used. [high], [low], [back] refer to the position of the body of the tongue. This system allows only three degrees of vowel height [+high] [ high, low] [+low] high vowels mid vowels low vowels and only two degrees of backness [ back] front vowels [+back] central and back vowels [NB. It would have been more logical to call these two [+front] and [ front] respectively.] We can also distinguish rounded vowels ([+round]) from unrounded vowels ([ round]); the feature [labial] is an alternative here. ([labial] may be superior in that it points up what rounded vowels and labial consonants have in common.) Additional distinctions among vowels, as required for English, were made by Chomsky & Halle with [tense]. In English the [+tense] vowels are those that can appear finally in a stressed syllable (basically long vowels and diphthongs). The others { a } are [ tense]. The application of [tense] to the vowel systems of other languages is problematic. Many more recent authors use [Advanced Tongue Root] (±ATR]) instead of [tense] on the basis of distinctions made in some West African languages which do involve different tongue gestures. The choice of a system of vowel features for a particular language is likely to depend on how the language makes use of vowel contrasts [high], [back], and [low] in consonants The features [high], [back] and [low], which primarily refer to the tongue position of vowels, are also applicable to consonants, so palatal and velar consonants (also consonants with palatalized or velarized secondary articulation)) are [+high] others are [ high]; velar, uvular and pharyngeal consonants are [+back] (as are consonants with a velarized or pharyngealized secondary articulation); pharyngeal consonants are [+low].
5 Phonology Q Max Wheeler 5 6. Duration Length distinctions among vowels or consonants may be made straightforwardly using the feature [long]. Further reading: Basic introduction: Davenport, Mike & Hannahs, S. J Introducing phonetics & phonology. London: Arnold. Chap. 6 P217 Dav More substantial introductions: Gussenhoven, Carlos & Jacobs, Haike Understanding phonology. London: Arnold. Chap. 5 P217 Gus Spencer, Andrew Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell. Chap. 4 P217 Spe Reference: Chomsky, Noam & Halle, Morris The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper and Row. [This classic of phonology is often referred to by the abbreviation SPE.]
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