X-bar theory: Attach to X-bar level Multiple X-bar levels possible

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2 X-bar theory: Attach to X-bar level Multiple X-bar levels possible 2

3 Is compositional: not rotely memorized Infinite range of application Even though store of examples is finite Is subject to grammaticality judgments, intuitions Can be described in formal, mathematical ways Varies widely but regularly across languages 3

4 A sentence has multiple meanings Lexical ambiguity Different meanings, same syntactic structure; differences at word level only e.g. bat (flying mammal, sports device) Yesterday I found a bat. Morphological ambiguity Different meanings, different morphological structure; differences in morphology e.g. axes (axe+s, axis+s) Pay attention to these axes. 4

5 Sentence has multiple meanings based on constituent structure alone Frequent phenomena: PP-phrase attachment I saw the man with a beard. (not ambiguous) I saw the man with a telescope. (ambiguous) Nominal compound structure He works for a small computer company. 5

6 We re all wired with the same machinery for language Basic system + parameters L1 acquisition: finding out which parameters apply to mother tongue Setting parameters differently for the basic system accounts for different languages 6

7 Head: where English, French, Spanish, etc.: verb-medial Japanese, Hindi, Armenian, etc.: verb-final Movements: when & where Verb raising WH- movement Cliticization Case assignment: whether 7

8 The interaction of morphology and syntax Many interesting aspects This course: only two Verb inflection Case 8

9 Type of inflectional morphology Marks an NP s grammatical role in the sentence English Disappeared for nouns, remnant for 3 rd person singular masc/fem pronouns Nominative/accusative/genetive 9

10 Is assigned structurally (syntactically) Subject NP (nominative): assigned by I Object NP (accusative): assigned by V, P Possessor NP (genetive): assigned by head N Case filter: rules out structures that violate case assignment 10

11 Sentential Scope is over sentence John finally listened to the music. Paul taunted her, unfortunately. Adverbial Scope is over verb phrase John intently listened to the music. Paul taunted her mercilessly. Diagnostics (fortunately, forcibly, openly, certainly) 11

12 We re endowed with language Specific mental capacity Genetically transmitted Limited flexibility, needs to be fine-tuned Universal principles, parameters Exhaustive rule systems are too complicated 12

13 Basic crosslinguistic core X-bar Thematic relations Headedness Parameters that need setting Values: 2, or more? Lexical content is language-specific 13

14 pro-drop Inflection Expletive subjects Free subject/verb inversion Empty resumptive pronouns Long wh-movement of subjects 14

15 At each stage, wild variation is constrained Conventional vs. creative Only have to address parameters (nothing lower) 15

16 We come hard-wired for language Rules (X, c-command, syllable structure) Categories: POS, sound classes, etc. Invariant core that applies to all languages Called Universal Grammar (UG) Parameters have to be instantiated Phrasal head order Syllable types Subject-drop 16

17 Full adult-like linguistic competence? Same basic grammar, rules as adults? Something less? Ability to be conventional Ability to be creative Ability to balance both of these 17

18 Major intellectual achievement Universal Children everywhere learn language, no matter which No normal children fail to learn language Incredibly short time-span 18 mo.: 50 words; 6 yr.: 13,000 words One of greatest miracles of life Why a grammar? Infinite variation Regularities (sometimes too closely) 18