Reading 1: Linguistics 1103/2103

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1 Reading 1: Linguistics 1103/2103 Phil Branigan Directory Table of Contents Begin Article Copyright c 2000 Last Revision Date: October 1, 2008

2 Table of Contents 1. Complex sentences 2. Syntactic structure of embedded declarative clauses (statements) 3. Structure of embedded yes-no questions 4. The syntactic functions of CP

3 Section 1: Complex sentences 3 1. Complex sentences Sentences may contain other complete sentences: we call such structures complex sentences. (1) a. Prunella hopes [ TP Peter will bring pizza ]. b. Toni announced to everyone [ that the rain would continue for several days ] c. I wonder [ whether the eagle has landed yet ]. Complex sentence terminology A clause: is any sentence, which may or may not contain another sentence. Clauses may be root clauses or embedded clauses. A root clause: is not contained in any other clause. All simple sentences are root clauses. An embedded clause: is contained in at least one other clause. A matrix clause: is a clause which contains an embedded sentence, whether or not it is also a root clause. (2) Pam signed the contract. (simple sentence, root clause) (3) Peter thinks that Pam signed the contract. (complex sentence, matrix clause, embedded clause)

4 Section 1: Complex sentences 4 Statements and Questions Statements, or declarative clauses, present a description of a fact or an event. Questions, or interrogative clauses request information. Questions come in several varieties: polar questions wh-questions echo questions Only polar questions will be discussed at this point in the course. Direct Polar Questions (4) a. Did Pam bring the documents? b. Would you like another slice? c. Is it raining outside? Polar questions: ask a question for which the answer should be yes or no are also called yes-no questions

5 Section 2: Syntactic structure of embedded declarative clauses (statements) 5 involve an inverted word order in which the finite auxiliary verb appears in front of the subject (in simple sentences) can be used as simple sentences, these are also called direct polar questions Indirect polar questions Polar questions may appear as embedded clauses: these are called indirect questions. (5) a. Peter wondered if Sarah brought the documents. b. Did Sam ask if you would like another slice? c. Tell me whether it is raining outside. With indirect questions, the embedded clause is a question, but not one which requires an answer. It simply describes what someone is asking, wondering, etc. 2. Syntactic structure of embedded declarative clauses (statements) (6) Mika forgot that cats are demanding. In embedded clauses which are statements, the embedded sentence often appears together with the word that. That is a complementiser ; it is a

6 Section 2: Syntactic structure of embedded declarative clauses (statements) 6 distinct word from the demonstrative Det that Normal tests for constituency show that the complementiser and the embedded sentence form a constituent. Substitution: (7) Mika forgot that cats are demanding. Mika forgot that. Movement: (8) That cats are demanding, Mika forgot. Coordination: (9) Mika forgot that cats are demanding and that fish are boring. Therefore, the structure of such embedded clauses will be:

7 Section 2: Syntactic structure of embedded declarative clauses (statements) 7? complementiser TP that NP T cats T VP V V AP are demanding The structure of that+tp constituents fits into the general pattern for phrase structure if we suppose that the complementiser is the head of a new type of phrase, a complementiser phrase (CP) in which TP is the complement.

8 Section 3: Structure of embedded yes-no questions 8 CP C C TP that NP T cats T VP V V are AP demanding 3. Structure of embedded yes-no questions The same pattern is found in embedded questions. (10) a. Peter wondered if Sarah brought the documents. b. Keith asked whether Mick had arrived yet.

9 Section 3: Structure of embedded yes-no questions 9 If if and whether are complementisers, like that. And once again, C and the following TP form a constituent in embedded questions (11) Peter wondered if Sarah had brought the documents and whether Mick had arrived yet. The structure of the interrogative CP will then be: CP C C TP if NP T Sarah T had VP brought the documents

10 Section 4: The syntactic functions of CP The syntactic functions of CP CP can occupy the same sorts of positions as other phrasal categories: modifier, and complement (and possibly specifier). CP modifiers appear as relative clauses, modifying nouns, and and adverbial clauses modifying verbs. (12) a. the house [CP that Jack built ] b. They will call us [CP when you arrive ] The internal structure of relative clauses and adverbial clauses is complicated, and will be discussed when we study syntactic transformations. CP modifiers also appear in conditional clause structures, such as:

11 Section 4: The syntactic functions of CP 11 TP NP T the cops T CP T VP if Ted leaves town may get suspicious CP freely appears as a complement to verbs which allow this as a complement option. (13) a. Jim swore [ CP that the tank was full ] CP b. Sue asked us [ CP whether the parcel had arrived ]. NP CP c. The officer explained to us [ CP that the license had expired ]. PP to CP

12 Section 4: The syntactic functions of CP 12 TP NP T Sue T VP V V asked NP us CP C C whether TP the parcel had arrived CP complements to other categories Some nouns allow CP complements: (14) a. every rumour [ CP that the plane would be late ] b. the theory [ CP that the world is a big turtle ] c. the question [ CP if the beer was cold ]

13 Section 4: The syntactic functions of CP 13 NP N Some adjectives allow CP complements: N CP (15) a. afraid [ CP that the show would be cancelled ] b. certain [ CP that the soufflé had fallen ] c. unsure [ CP whether she should go ] A A handful of prepositions allow CP complements: A CP (16) a. (They argued) about [ CP whether the horse had won ] b. (We were fighting) over [ CP whether the car needed new tires ] PP P And CP can sometimes be used as the specifier for TP, so that it functions as the subject of a sentence. P CP AP

14 Section 4: The syntactic functions of CP 14 TP CP T that the leaves are turning red T may VP please their visitors