Any part of this Progress Note may be freely reproduced with the appropriate acknowledgment.

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1 unite for children

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4 Version printed for limited distribution 17 August 2009 Any part of this Progress Note may be freely reproduced with the appropriate acknowledgment. Design and layout: Keen Media (Thailand) Co., Ltd. Printed in Thailand ISBN: UNICEF East Asia and Pacific Regional Office 19 Phra Atit Road Bangkok Tel: (66 2) Fax: (66 2)

5 Acknowledgements In 2005, National EFA Coordinators and education experts from throughout Asia and the Pacific agreed on a framework to undertake the EFA Mid Decade Assessment (MDA). The EFA MDA process included the resuscitation of National EFA teams, the preparation of National EFA MDA Report and regional capacity building and coordination efforts. The EFA Mid-Decade Assessment (MDA) process, coordinated under the auspices of the Regional Thematic Working Group on EFA, was initiated to review progress towards the goals of EFA and to identify remaining gaps, un-reached populations and areas of greatest inequity to ensure the goals are achieved in full by 2015, with special attention to identifying the unreached and the disaggregation of disparities. This report was developed by UNICEF EAPRO in collaboration with the East Asia and Pacific Regional United Nations Girls Initiative (UNGEI) and in cooperation with UNESCO Bangkok and the UNESCO Institute of Statistics office for Asia-Pacific (AIMS Unit), as a contribution to the larger set of results from the Asia and Pacific for All Mid-Decade Assessment process. The Indicators, which guided the National Reports and this Progress Note, are from the EFA MDA Technical Guidelines, which were developed by Technical Support Groups made up of staff from various Regional EFA TWG partner organizations based in Bangkok. In the case of the Gender Technical Support Group, acknowledgement should be made to contributions from core partners in the UN Girls Initiative (UNGEI), who were instrumental in developing the Guidelines, providing feedback and guidance to gender chapters from national EFA MDA reports and guiding the direction of this Progress Note. The East Asia and Pacific Regional UNGEI partners are: Baha i International Community, Development Center (EDC), International Labour Organization (ILO) Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Oxfam Great Britain, Plan Asia Regional Office, Save the Children - Southeast Asia and the Pacific Regional Office, Southeast Asian Ministers of Organization (SEAMEO) Secretariat, Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) Regional Support Team, Asia Pacific United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP), United Nations al, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Asia-Pacific Regional Bureau for, United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), United Nations Children s Fund (UNICEF) East Asia and Pacific Regional Office, and World Vision Foundation of Thailand. The Progress Note draws extensively on findings and data from national assessments and thus special acknowledgement must be given to those coordinators and teams, which led this important process in their countries. The Progress Note also draws extensively upon other research, evaluations, household surveys and analytical reports and we acknowledge the excellent work done by a wide range of partners as cited in this Note. for All Mid-Decade Assessment East Asia and Pacific 3

6 Text for this report was originally prepared by Lucy Lazo and Mita Gupta with extensive guidance, review and input provided by technical experts and professionals past and present representing partner agencies within the East Asia and Pacific Regional United Nations Girls Initiative (UNGEI). Special recognition goes to Aya Aoki, Chemba Raghavan, Cliff Meyers, Jon Kapp, Leah Mosel, Leotes Lugo, Maki Hayashikawa, and Urmila Sarkar with special support from Tanaporn Perapate.

7 Contents Executive Summary: Main findings and recommendations 9 Chapter 1: Introduction Monitoring and assessing for All The EFA Mid-Decade Assessment (MDA): Identifying and reaching the unreached EFA MDA National Reports EFA MDA Progress Notes Core indicators Systems/policy indicators Additional indicators Organization of the report 21 Chapter 2: Trends and Patterns Systems/policy indicators Policies/legal platform Gender budgeting Core indicators Gender parity in enrolment at all levels Pre-primary education : Basic education 29 a Primary education enrolment 29 b Survival rates 32 c Out-of-school children 34 d Transition to secondary education 36 e Secondary education 40 f Technical and vocational education 45 g Teachers 46 h governance 47 i Curricula and textbooks 49 j Teaching and learning process Tertiary education Adult literacy 54

8 Chapter 3: Cross Indicator and Cross Goal Analysis Poverty and gender disparities The link between education and employment: Gender issues in the school to work transition Factors affecting women s literacy The rural-urban divide 66 Chapter 4: Emerging Concerns, Gaps, Constraints and Challenges 69 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations 75 Annex I: Gender Core and Additional Indicators 81 Annex II: Gender Core Indicators by Country 99 Annex III: Gender Policy Indicators 125

9 References List of Boxes Box 1: The Dakar EFA goals 12 Box 2: Repetition rates 33 Box 3: Lao PDR: Reaching unreached girls 35 Box 4: Indonesia: towards eliminating girls exploitation 44 Box 5: Cambodia: Quality standards for mainstreaming gender in education 47 Box 6: The burden of household work 61 Box 7: Political participation 64 Box 8: Gender-based violence 68 List of Tables Table 1: Number of Indicators for EFA Goals 16 Table 2: Status of EFA MDA Reporting 17 Table 3: Gender Parity Index (GPI) of enrolment ratios for East Asia and the Pacific 27 Table 4: Gender disparities in survival rates to the last grade of primary education, 1999 and Table 5: Proportion of female teachers by sub-sector, 2000/ /06 47 List of Figures Figure 1: Gender Parity Index for gross enrolment ratio in pre-primary education 28 Figure 2: Gender Parity Index for net enrolment ratios in primary education, 1999 and Figure 3: Sub-national disparities in the Gender Parity Index for net enrolment ratio in primary education 30 Figure 4: Gender parity levels in Indonesia 31 Figure 5: Gender parity index in net enrolment ratio in primary education, Pacific 1999 and Figure 6: Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach grade 5 (survival rate), Philippines by province, Figure 7: Out-of-primary school children by sex, Figure 8: Gender parity index for transition to secondary education, selected countries, Figure 9: Attainment profiles of girls and boys ages 15-19, Lao PDR, Figure 10: Gender parity in net attendance ratio in secondary or higher education, Viet Nam 39 Figure 11: Transition rate to secondary education in Cambodia, Figure 12: Gender parity index in gross enrolment in secondary education, East Asia, Figure 13: Gender parity index in gross enrolment in secondary education, Pacific, Figure 14: Gross enrolment ratio for secondary education, Figure 15: Gender parity index in net enrolment ratio in secondary education in Mekong Sub-region and Myanmar 43

10 List of Figures (continues) Figure 16: Enrolment in technical and vocational education, Figure 17: Disparities in the presence of male and female teachers 46 Figure 18: Gender disparities in reading scores 50 Figure 19: Gender differences in student performance on the mathematics scale 51 Figure 20: Gross enrolment ratio in tertiary education, Figure 21: Per cent of female enrolment in tertiary fields of study 54 Figure 22: Adult illiteracy (per cent) 55 Figure 23: Adult illiteracy rate 55 Figure 24: Tested functional literacy rate by ethnicity, Lao PDR, Figure 25: Mongolia secondary school and higher education net attendance ratio by wealth quintile 57 Figure 26: Thailand secondary school and higher education net attendance ratio by wealth quintile 58 Figure 27: Viet Nam secondary school and higher education net attendance ratio by wealth quintile 58 Figure 28: Lao PDR, 2000, female/male attainment profile, ages Figure 29: Philippines, 2003, female/male attainment profile, ages Figure 30: Myanmar, 2000, female/male attainment profile, ages Figure 31: Estimated earned income 62 Figure 32: Professional and technical personnel in urban areas by sector, Figure 33: Literacy rate of women aged 14-24, Thailand 65 Figure 34: Illiteracy rate, China, Figure 35: Lao PDR, 2000, rural/urban attainment profile, ages Figure 36: Philippines, 2003, rural/urban attainment profile, ages

11 Executive Summary Main findings and recommendations This Progress Note on Gender Equality in for East Asia and the Pacific functions both as a portrait of a region that overall continues to move towards its education goals and as a road map for the region s way forward. While disparities in goal achievements exist, positive progress has been made. Most notably, education enrollments have increased across the region, leading to greater gender parity and access to education. Furthermore, de jure gender equality is widespread throughout the region. Though it must be noted that all countries and different areas within each country have had varying degrees of success, the region as a whole can be seen as progressing towards a more equitable and better future of education. Though these growing accomplishments must be sustained, the region can also begin focusing on other aspects of gender equality in education. Gender equality includes parity within the quality of education received during the teaching and learning processes (gender equality in education). Beyond the classroom, gender equality can be achieved through education in terms of the types of opportunities available through education, including employment prospects. As greater numbers of girls go to school and at higher education levels than ever before, efforts must be made for other benchmarks of parity such as income levels, employment opportunities, leadership and decision-making power to keep pace as well. Further efforts to institutionalize gender mainstreaming in education systems across the region should foster an organizational culture in support of gender equality and ensure that a gender perspective is incorporated in education policies, plans and programmes at all levels. Attention can also now turn to specific groups of children both girls and boys who continue to fall through the cracks of education systems. These particular disadvantaged groups include ethnic minorities, migrant communities, displaced populations, poor families, child labourers, people living in remote areas and people with disabilities. The various factors affecting these groups can compound their gender-related difficulties, thereby denying them their right to education. The attainment of EFA goal 5 by 2015 now depends considerably on targeting policy, strategy and programming to reach the unreached. After presenting a picture of a region progressing positively albeit unevenly and with plenty of work left to do the progress note concludes with a road map of concrete recommendations to overcome fundamental obstacles to the achievement of the EFA goal on gender in education. for All Mid-Decade Assessment East Asia and Pacific 9

12 These recommendations include proposals to address multiple levels of bias; to close the gender gap against boys; and to move beyond parity in education planning and programming. In addition, this note proposes ways to address gender equality through education, including strategies to bridge the gender divide in fields of study in higher education; to strengthen linkages between education and the labour market; and to promote gender-responsive education management and governance and equality in the teaching profession. With these ideas for tackling obstacles to gender equality in education, the note looks ahead to future achievements. 10 Gender Equality in Progress Note

13 Chapter 1 Introduction In 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), in which Article 26 asserts that everyone has a right to education. This fundamental right was further expanded in 1988 in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), which stipulates that every child has a right to a basic education, of good quality, and in their own language. In 1990, using these documents as their guides, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations al, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the United Nations Children s Fund (UNICEF) and the World Bank organized the World Conference on for All (EFA). In March 1990, 155 nations from around the world, as well as representatives from approximately 150 organizations, met at the World Conference on for All in Jomtien, Thailand. The participants of this conference, with supporting documentation in the UDHR and CRC, re-affirmed the universal right to education, and adopted the World Declaration on for All: Meeting Basic Learning Needs to ensure that these rights could be fulfilled. As per the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, conference discussions were anchored by the principle of the right of all children, young people and adults to education, and the recognition that urgent action needed to be taken to address the growing number of out-of-school children worldwide. An expanded concept of basic education was agreed upon that encompassed not only knowledge and skills but also the importance of culture and value and finding ways in which people can live together in peace. A set of six targets were established as follows: 1. Expansion of early childhood care and development activities 2. Universal Primary by the year Improvement in learning achievement 4. Reduction of the adult illiteracy rate to one-half its 1990 level by the year 2000, with sufficient emphasis on female literacy 5. Expansion of provisions of basic education and training in other essential skills required by youth and adults 6. Increased acquisition by individuals and families of the knowledge, skills and values required for better living and sound and sustainable development It was anticipated at the time that an assessment would take place to review progress against the commitments made in Jomtien towards for All at the end of the decade, and accordingly, the EFA 2000 Assessment was carried out. The findings were discussed at the World for All Mid-Decade Assessment East Asia and Pacific 11

14 Forum in Dakar, Senegal, in April The 1,100 participants assembled there noted that, despite commitments made in Jomtien, unacceptably high numbers of children and adults, primarily girls and women, continued to be denied their right to an education. Furthermore, the assessment results indicated that the quality of education was falling short of the needs of societies. Thus, addressing persisting gender disparities and inequalities and focusing on reaching the unreached was recognized as necessary for for All to be achieved. This led to the development and adoption of the Dakar Framework for Action, which not only reaffirms the goal of education for all as laid out by the previous international conventions but also collectively commits the participating governments and organizations to six goals to be achieved by 2015, in line with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Within the framework is a goal dedicated to achieving gender equality, described as: Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005 and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality (Dakar Framework for Action, EFA Goal 5) Box 1: The Dakar EFA Goals The six EFA goals set in Dakar in 2000 are: Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete free and compulsory primary education of good quality Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life skills programmes Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills 12 Gender Equality in Progress Note

15 This goal has two targets: the first, the deadline for which has already passed, was to attain gender parity in primary and secondary education by 2005, and the second was to achieve gender equality in education by The first target focuses on ensuring equality in numbers and proportions of girls and boys, women and men in various aspects of education at the primary and secondary level (e.g., enrolment, intake, percentage of female teachers, etc.). The second target is much broader and more complex. Achieving gender equality in education goes beyond a balance in numbers or proportions of girls and boys, men and women participating in education it must also ensure equality in learning processes and outcomes, as well. Thus, it is not just an issue of equality in access but also in the quality of education girls and boys receive, such as in the teaching and learning process in classrooms, in the support they receive for their education at home and in school, and in their opportunities beyond education, as they transition to the workplace. 1.1 Monitoring and assessing For All In 1996, at a meeting in Amman, Jordan, to assess progress midway through the Decade of EFA, partners agreed on 18 EFA Indicators (see Annex 1), which would provide the basis for the EFA National Reports to be prepared for the year There was great debate over the make up of these indicators, including for example whether Primary Gross Enrolment Rates (GER) or Primary Net Enrolment Rates (NER) should be included amongst the 18 (NER was chosen). In the end, however, overall availability of data was factored in and consensus reigned. After the Amman meeting, countries were encouraged to use the remaining time before 2000 to achieve the EFA goals and to refine their education information management systems (EMIS) in order to report on these indicators. Countries established National EFA Task Forces and Committees, made up of Ministry of officials, as well as staff from other relevant Ministries, NGOs, private sector and other relevant stakeholders. These National EFA Task Forces were responsible for preparing their National Reports for submission in Dakar. While countries were requested to disaggregate their data by male and female, further disaggregation by geographic location or other factors was not emphasized. In April 2000, to mark the end of the decade of For All, 181 countries gathered in Dakar, Senegal, for the World Forum, submitting their national reports as input into the global review. At this meeting, governments and global partners re-assessed progress on the EFA goals and adopted the Dakar Framework for Action, for All: Meeting Our Collective Commitments. for All Mid-Decade Assessment East Asia and Pacific 13

16 1.2 The EFA Mid-Decade Assessment (MDA): Identifying and reaching the unreached In mid-2005, three partners initiated the EFA MDA process: UNESCO Bangkok; the UNESCO Insititue of Statistics office for Asia-Pacific (AIMS Unit), and Regional UNICEF Offices for East Asia Pacific, for South Asia and for Central Eastern Europe/Commonwealth of Independent States. In October 2005, these partners convened a joint meeting to launch the Asia EFA Mid Decade Assessment process. Ministry of officials from 21 countries joined this meeting and initiated the MDA process to review progress made in the period from 2000 to 2005, with the goal of identifying unreached populations and areas of greatest inequity. The overall objectives for embarking on the Asia EFA MDA process were identified thus: Build national capacity to undertake monitoring and evaluation (M&E), MDA and Mid-Term Policy Reviews Assess progress and gaps in the achievement of the national and global targets of EFA Identify and locate the remaining gaps in terms of quality and equity at sub-national levels, with a focus on disadvantaged and excluded populations Review, identify and locate the problems, issues, policies, strategies, actions and critical factors of success/failure Use results of the EFA MDA process to sharpen the national and regional focus policies and strategies for attaining the EFA goals and the MDGs by 2015 The October 2005 meeting endorsed the establishment of six goal-based Technical Support Groups (TSGs) to guide the process, the preparation of the EFA MDA Technical Guidelines with expanded indicators, and the processes to follow in preparing the National Reports and supporting EFA MDA data sets. The Asia EFA MDA Core Group, consisting of members of the three key partners UNESCO Bangkok, UIS AIMS Unit in Bangkok, and UNICEF Regional Offices in Asia was also established. This Core Group was responsible for coordinating the overall EFA MDA process and reported directly to the Regional EFA Thematic Working Group. In line with the objectives set in October 2005, the process of building national capacity was supported by the core partners as a key element in the EFA MDA process. A series of regional and sub-regional workshops were held as part of the capactiy building process. Two regional workshops were held specifically for EFA Coordinators and Statisticians to help prepare data sets with disaggregated data. Sub-regional meetings were also supported to review draft findings of Sub-Regional Synthesis Reports, which were based on draft National Reports. Country-specific travel and missions by UNESCO, UNICEF and UIS staff provided hands-on technial support in analyzing findings and preparing the national EFA MDA reports. Further, to support countries in the compilation and use of disaggregated data for analysis, EFAInfo software was developed. This software is based on the DevInfo software currently used by the UN System to track progress at sub-national levels on specific development indicators. 14 Gender Equality in Progress Note

17 Through EFAInfo, data sets can be uploaded by countries for the EFA MDA indicators and easily turned into maps, graphs and charts. A series of sub-regional workshops were also held to support country treams in developing their skills to use EFAInfo. Technical support was provided to countries to customize EFAInfo in the national context and expand skills through training on the administration and use of the tool. The EFAInfo database contains not only the Provisional EFA MDA data sets submitted with draft EFA MDA National Reports but also data from the GMR and UIS Digest, from UNICEF s State of the World s Children Report, from the UN Statistical Division s data set on Gender (GenderInfo_), and from household surveys such as the Multiple Indicators Cluster Survey (MICS), the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) and the Living Standards Measurement Survey (LSMS). Data from other key studies has been compiled on education-related issues such as language, ethnicity and disabilities, amongst other issues. The compilation of these data sets within EFAInfo allows for regional analysis (using internationally comparable data) and more importantly, detailed sub-national analysis, which can be easily analyzed and presented. EFAInfo version 1.2, with a complete set of data, will be available in early 2009 in both CD-ROM and web-based applications. 1.3 EFA MDA National Reports As mentioned, for each of the Goals, regional Technical Support Groups (TSGs) were formed, bringing together teams of experts from the Asia region into groups to provide technical advice and support to ensure the delivery of national assessment activities. The first task for TSGs was to complete the EFA MDA Technical Guidelines. The Technical Guide spells out the indicators for countries their definitions, means of verification and sources. The TSGs prepared three sets of indicators for each Goal: System/Process Indicators Core Indicators Additional Indicators (primarily using indicators from MICS/DHS) In total, the EFA MDA Technical Guide contains 29 System/Process Indicators, 48 Core Indicators and 54 Additional Indicators spread over the 6 Goal areas (see Annex for complete list of Quality Indicators). for All Mid-Decade Assessment East Asia and Pacific 15

18 Table 1: Number of Indicators for EFA Goals Goals System/Process Core Additional Total Early childhood Access Life skills Literacy Gender Quality Total Later in the EFA MDA process, the TSGs were responsible for reviewing and providing feedback on the draft National Reports, which were submitted by National EFA Committees through AIMS Unit in the UNESCO Regional Office in Bangkok. The EFA MDA National Reports were completed by participating countries to assess progress in achievements on the EFA goals; to identify obstacles in achieving the EFA goals, and to identify the excluded or unreached target populations. The process of preparing EFA MDA Reports emphasized the need for greater disaggregation of data sets, expecting countries to further break down EFA MDA core indicators by geographic sub regions (provinces/regions/districts), by area (urban/rural/remote), by sex, by private/public, by language, by age and if possible by ethnicity, socio-economic status, disability and religion/caste. The intent is to identify constraints and opportunities, to reset targets, and to create a proposed action agenda to achieve EFA goals in Asia and the Pacific by EFA MDA Progress Notes The EFA MDA Core Group agreed to two initiatives to capture the regional outcomes of the EFA MDA processes. UIS AIMS Unit agreed to undertake six Sub-Regional Synthesis Reports (SSRs) for the six UNESCO Sub-Regions, namely the Pacific, Insular South East Asia, Mekong South East Asia, East Asia, South Asia and Central Asia. The SSRs summarize the EFA MDA National Reports for each of the Goals and indicators in one document. For the second regional initiative, UNICEF agreed to undertake the 4 Progress Notes (ECCD, Life Skills, Gender, and Quality), each of which focuses on just one Goal, covering UNICEF s East Asia and Pacific Region (except for ECCE which also includes the South Asia Region). The key distinction between Progress Notes and SSRs, in addition to the geographic coverage and scope of Goals, is that the SSRs rely only upon the EFA MDA National Reports, while the Progress Notes include other sources of data, such as quantitative and qualitative studies and reports, data submitted as Provisional EFA MDA data sets, findings from international 16 Gender Equality in Progress Note

19 surveys such as MICS, DHS, LSMS, TIMMS, PISA and other regional and national surveys and assessments. Thus, the Progress Notes use a combination of international data and, wherever possible, sub-regional or country case studies as a way to examine trends, apply lessons learned over the past several years, and prepare for the future. Table 2: Status of EFA MDA Reporting EFA 2000 Report EFA National Action Plan EFA MDA National Report MICS, DHS, LSMS Reports GMR and Annual UIS Statistics Australia Brunei Cambodia China Cook Islands Fiji Indonesia Japan Kiribati Korea (DPRK) Korea (ROK) Lao PDR Malaysia Marshall Islands Micronesia Mongolia Myanmar Nauru New Zealand Niue Palau Papua New Guinea Philippines Samoa Singapore Solomon Islands Thailand Timor-Leste Tokelau Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Viet Nam for All Mid-Decade Assessment East Asia and Pacific 17

20 This Progress Note, therefore, attempts to synthesize national and regional data in an effort to summarize the major issues and patterns of achievements, assess remaining disparities, and make policy and programming recommendations for the period up to Qualitative and quantitative data analysis methods were used to assess progress and trends in identifying un-reached populations and determining the most important inputs and processes in order to improve the current situation. A summary of the status of EFA MDA Reporting and of the availability of national surveys and other sources of data is compiled below for review. The Progress Notes are not intended as a means of comparing countries, or to identify high and low achievers amongst Asian nations. National comparisons, where made, are done so using GMR data, as this has been vetted by UIS Montreal, ensuring comparability of data. When using Provisional EFA MDA data sets, as these are primarily based on national EMIS data, we cannot assure that the definitions used by different countries are indeed the same, thereby making any cross-country comparisons extremely difficult. Rather, more emphasis is placed on comparing sub-national data sets, especially on the differences and gaps existing between sub-national levels. In this way, even if definitions between countries vary, the disparity gaps, or the breadth of disparity for similar indicators within countries, are what is being compared. In this regards, whether one country defines primary as five years and another at six years, the sub-national differences between districts in terms of their primary completion rates can still be compared. What we find, even if the definitions may vary slightly, is that some countries have very little in the way of geographical disparities while others have huge gaps and sub-national inequities in their completion rates. A set of indicators was developed by which to assess countries progress towards achieving the goals and targets of the Dakar Framework for Action. In relation to EFA Goal 5, the core indicators (please see Annex I) are a set of quantitative indicators for gender parity and equality. There are also what is termed system and policy indicators (see Annex II), which were developed to allow countries to provide more qualitative data and information, beyond gender parity indices, to supplement quantitative data and analysis in connection with the larger goal of gender equality. This note focused on the following key indicators. 1.5 Core indicators Gender parity indices 1 were used for the following indicators: Adult literacy: This indicator assesses the extent to which women and men can equitably attain literacy, a key basic means of making informed decisions and participating actively and fully in society. Also, parents literacy, particularly mothers literacy, can have an impact on the education and literacy levels of their children, and this is therefore an important indicator to monitor. 1 The gender parity index (GPI) is the ratio of female to male values of a given indicator. A GPI of 1 (or within the band of 0.97 to 1.03) indicates parity between the sexes; a GPI above 1 (or above 1.03) indicates a disparity in favour of girls, and a GPI of below 1 (or below 0.97) indicates a disparity in favour of boys. 18 Gender Equality in Progress Note

21 Gross enrolment ratio (GER) for early childhood care and education (ECCE): The enrolment ratio in organized early learning programmes of girls to boys regardless of age, this indicator measures the disparities between girls and boys in gaining a critical start to education and development. Participation in ECCE programmes have been shown to improve cognitive development and contribute to increased school participation, completion and achievement, among other benefits to children s growth and development. GER for primary/secondary education: The GPI for GER in primary and secondary education measures the disparities in enrolment between girls and boys at these education levels, regardless of their age. This gives an indication of all girls and boys who are enrolled and may include repeaters and children under or beyond the designated official age of school-going children at a given education level. Net enrolment ratio in primary/secondary education: This indicator assesses whether girls and boys are enrolling in primary and secondary education at the appropriate age (i.e., the official age group corresponding to the given level of education) and in an equitable manner. Both this and the GER are important measures of participation in the education of girls and boys. Survival rate to grade 5: This index is the percentage of a cohort of girls and boys enrolled in the first grade of primary education in a given school year who are expected to reach grade 5, regardless of repetition. al attainment to grade 5 is commonly considered the minimum level of education required for sustainable literacy. Transition rate to secondary education: This indicator measures disparities between girls and boys in progressing from primary to secondary education. It is calculated as a percentage of new entrants to the first grade of secondary education in a given year out of the number of students enrolled in the final grade of primary education the previous year. Apart from the above gender parity indices, another quantitative indicator considered is: Percentage of female teachers in primary/secondary/technical and vocational education. This indicator shows the gender composition of the teaching force and whether women are under- or overrepresented at given education levels. This may have implications for girls enrolment at those levels of education, since it has been shown that the presence of female teachers can in certain contexts encourage the participation of girls in school. Furthermore, this may also point to inequities in terms of seniority and remuneration in cases where pay scales and levels of authority may differ between different education levels. for All Mid-Decade Assessment East Asia and Pacific 19

22 1.6 Policy/system indicators The policy/system indicators are as follows: Legislative, policy and institutional reform that conform to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW): This indicator assesses whether the necessary legal and institutional frameworks are in place that support gender equality in education, using CEDAW as a basis. CEDAW, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1979, is an internationally binding instrument aimed at addressing discrimination against women and providing a legal basis for equality between women and men. Among the 30 articles of CEDAW is article 10, requiring states parties to ensure women s equal rights with men to education. Under this article, women and men must have equal access to all levels of education, and beyond access, governments are also obligated to ensure the elimination of gender stereotypes from textbooks and teaching and learning processes, the same conditions for career and vocational guidance for girls and boys, and equal opportunities to participate in sports and physical education. Percentage of the budget dedicated to gender programming within relevant Ministries: While laws and policies may exist as the foundation for ensuring gender equality in education, adequate funds must be allocated for their effective implementation. It is therefore important to consider the proportion of the education budget allotted for gender programming and addressing gender disparities and inequalities in education. Existence of policies to encourage girls participation in school (stipends, scholarships, etc.): In the context of existing legal frameworks, this indicator looks at the policies that have been enacted to encourage girls participation (or boys participation, as disparities can be to their disadvantage as well) in school and to address gender disparities in education. This would include targeted measures such as the provision of stipends and scholarships that seek to redress historical and continuing disadvantages which prevent girls/women and boys/men from operating on a level playing field. Gender review of education sector plan, including review of the curriculum, textbooks, education facilities, etc.: Ensuring girls and boys participate in school in equal numbers is one aspect of achieving gender equality. Beyond access, however, gender equality in education also encompasses girls and boys experiences in school, in terms of equal and fair treatment by teachers and the gender responsiveness of the curriculum and learning materials, as well as the learning environment. This indicator intends to assess whether education processes, materials, facilities, etc. are being reviewed from a gender perspective in order to address gender biases. It would be important to note also how results of such gender analyses are utilized to inform education policies and programmes and whether these are being conducted in a systematic manner, as part of regular education sector planning processes. 20 Gender Equality in Progress Note

23 1.7 Additional indicators In order to understand better the true extent of disparities and gaps in achievement of the goals of EFA, data from household surveys were considered whenever available. The analysis of these indicators, often presented as anecdotal in nature, allow the progress note to take a perspective not available through standard administrative data collection. Thus, throughout the progress note, the reader will find analysis of socio-economic dimensions of education participation and achievement, more complex analysis of gender in education as it is influenced by economics and culture, and analysis based on the unit of the household. Presentation of this data, together with administrative data generated by the Ministries of and shared with international organizations, becomes a powerful tool in understanding more fully the achievements and gaps in achievement of EFA s goals. 1.8 Organization of the Report This progress note consists of five chapters. Following this introductory chapter, chapter 2 presents the key trends in gender in education in the region based on the system/policy and core indicators mentioned above. Data and analysis both quantitative and qualitative in nature are drawn from national EFA MDA reports whenever available, together with internationallycomparable data, as relevant and available. Chapter 3 discusses cross-indicator linkages such as poverty and gender disparities, gender issues in employment and education, factors affecting women s literacy and the rural-urban divide. Chapter 4 summarizes the key issues and emerging concerns emanating from the data, while Chapter 5 outlines conclusions determined from the progress review, as well as proposed recommendations towards achieving gender equality by for All Mid-Decade Assessment East Asia and Pacific 21

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25 Chapter 2 Trends and Patterns The East Asia-Pacific (EAP) region is home to almost two billion people one third of the world s population and some 580 million children. From Mongolia in the north to Tonga in the south, and from Western China to the Cook Islands, the EAP covers some of the world s most diverse areas. The EAP region combines Eastern Asia, Southeastern Asia and Oceania and is comprised of 33 countries. These include countries that participated in EFA reporting in 2000 Cambodia, China, Cook Islands, Fiji, Indonesia, Kiribati, DPR Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Viet Nam; as well as those countries that did not prepare EFA National Reports Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Japan, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Singapore and South Korea. This Progress Note reports primarily on those countries engaged in EFA Reporting. Where data is available, the Progress Note also looks at the status of industrialized countries in the region. 2.1 Systems/policy indicators Policies/legal platform There are sufficient legal bases for promoting gender equality in education, with a foundation in international treaties such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), to which most countries in the region are party. 1 This is further strengthened and supported by commitments to the Beijing Platform of Action, the Millennium Development Goals, the Dakar Framework for Action, For All, and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which provides for the right to education for every citizen. Towards meeting their obligations to these treaties and agreements, some countries, such as Indonesia, Lao PDR and Viet Nam, have adopted laws stipulating the right to education of all citizens without discrimination, including on the basis of sex. In Myanmar, this is provided for in the national constitution. In the cases of Lao PDR, Mongolia and Thailand, the principle of 1 All countries in the East Asia and Pacific region are party to the CRC. Most are also party to CEDAW, with the exception of Nauru, Niue, Palau and Tonga. for All Mid-Decade Assessment East Asia and Pacific 23

26 non-discrimination is stated in the constitution, supported by gender equality laws and policies (in Mongolia, the law has been drafted). Other countries, such as Fiji, Indonesia, Lao PDR, and Malaysia, also have laws in place in support of women, gender equality or gender mainstreaming in general (in Lao PDR, in the context of poverty reduction). In Fiji, outcome 6 of the Sector Development Plan states the need to enhance equality for girls by making comprehensive efforts to eliminate gender discrimination at all levels. 2 In Malaysia, the National Policy for Women was formulated in 1989 to ensure equal opportunities and benefits of development for men and women and to account for women s needs in all sectors of national development. Applied within the context of education, emphasis has been placed on providing special assistance to disadvantaged groups in accessing education and on the diversification of educational opportunities, particularly in scientific and technical fields, in which girls/women are underrepresented. 3 Cambodia is one of the few countries to have developed specific policies in support of gender equality in education or gender mainstreaming within the education system. The Cambodian Gender Policy was drafted in 2003, followed by the formulation of the Gender Mainstreaming Strategy in for and the development of Quality Standards and Indicators for Gender Mainstreaming in in These efforts were taken in conjunction with a Sector Wide Approach (SWAp) and are therefore closely linked to sector plans and budget review processes that cover the full breadth of education programming. In relation to these laws and policies, countries have taken a variety of measures towards achieving gender equality in education. Several countries have conducted gender reviews of education systems or plans, such as Cambodia, where a gender appraisal was carried out of the Strategic Plan of A number of countries, including China, Lao PDR, Mongolia and Thailand, have reviewed their curricula and learning materials from a gender perspective to identify gender stereotypes and bias. In Lao PDR, curriculum developers also received gender training, from which they developed supplementary learning materials, a new primary education curriculum and textbooks. 6 Furthermore, some countries have established national mechanisms in support of their policies for gender equality in education. For example, in Indonesia, a dedicated unit has been set up in the Ministry of National to plan for and monitor efforts to ensure equitable access to and benefits from education provisions in cooperation with the Coordinating Ministry of Women s Empowerment, which has the overall responsibility for the gender mainstreaming of government policies and strategies in all sectors. 7 Cambodia has formed a Gender Mainstreaming Secretariat under the National for All Committee, tasked with ensuring the implementation of strategies towards achieving gender equality in education, including girls equal access to education, enhancing gender equity in education management and delivery services, and strengthening general technical capacity in education programming in policy-making. The Secretariat is advised by the Steering Committee of Gender Mainstreaming, Ministry of, Youth and Sport. 8 In Lao PDR, the Gender and Ethnic 2 EFA MDA Report, Fiji, p EFA MDA Report, Malaysia. 4 EFA MDA Report, Cambodia, as of November 2007, p Ibid, p for All Mid-Decade Assessment and Fast Track Initiative Report, Lao PDR, 13 February 2008, p EFA Mid Decade Assessment, Sustaining EFA Performance in Indonesia, EFA Secretariat, Ministry of National, Republic of Indonesia, p Gender Equality in Progress Note

27 Minority Unit (GEMEU) provides support for gender mainstreaming in general education, and there is also an and Gender Donor Working Group, chaired by the Vice Minister of, which plays a coordinating role. 9 While strides have been made in forming the legal framework and strategies to promote gender equality in education in the region, gaps remain between policy and practice and fulfilling obligations as per the CRC and CEDAW. The Committees for the Rights of the Child and on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women have noted, in response to country reports based on these international instruments, that people from ethnic minority groups and living in rural and remote areas, particularly women and girls, continue to face obstacles to accessing education in the region. 10 In Thailand, regional disparities were also cited, particularly affecting children, especially girls, in the southernmost provinces. 11 The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women also voiced concern regarding the persistence of patriarchal attitudes and deep-rooted stereotypes in relation to the roles and responsibilities of women and men that lead to the disadvantaged position of women in the labour market and in political and public life in countries across the region. This is also reflected in the limited academic choices of girls in school, as well as in terms of their subject choices and fields of study. For example, the Committee raised concerns with regard to the low representation of girls in non-traditional fields such as science and technology in Malaysia, thereby limiting their career choices and earning potential. 12 Women similarly lag behind in these fields in Fiji, with schools predominantly offering courses such as home economics and typing to girls. 13 The government has sought to address this issue by providing scholarships to girls, resulting in their increased enrolment in non-traditional fields. Despite the development and enactment of laws and policies in support of gender mainstreaming around the region, in some cases these need to be strengthened, along with the associated implementing bodies and mechanisms, for full compliance with CEDAW. For example, the Committee has called on countries such as Singapore and Vanuatu to elevate the status of the key institutions responsible for gender mainstreaming so that those institutions can effectively carry out their role. 14 In addition, the Committee has noted in several cases that teacher training must incorporate gender perspectives in order to build the knowledge and capacity of teachers in this regard Gender budgeting While policies are in place promoting gender mainstreaming and gender equality in education in the region, the question is whether adequate resources are allocated in support of these policy commitments. Some countries have moved towards introducing gender budget initiatives to facilitate gender analysis in the formulation of their national budgets and in the allocation of 8 EFA MDA Report, Cambodia, as of November 2007, p for All Mid-Decade Assessment and Fast Track Initiative Report, Lao PDR, 13 February 2008, p Mapping the Intersections of CEDAW & CRC Concluding Observations: Review of the Most Recent Asian State Party Reports (as of August 2007), UNICEF/Wellesley Centers for Women. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, Concluding Observations, Vanuatu, June for All Mid-Decade Assessment East Asia and Pacific 25

28 resources. For example, the Philippine government adopted a gender and development budget policy requiring all government agencies to allocate at least five per cent of their budget for gender and development. This initiative, led by the National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women (NCRFW), had been seen as a strategic means of ensuring adequate funding for the Philippine Plan for Gender-Responsive Development (PPGD) The aim was not to limit funding for gender and development to five per cent but rather to use these funds to ensure that gender equality is addressed in the remaining 95 per cent of the budget. NCRFW s monitoring of this policy s implementation revealed that by 1997 the gender and development budget was at around one per cent, far below the five per cent mark. 15 In Malaysia, the government, in cooperation with UNDP, piloted a gender budgeting initiative in four ministries, including the Ministry of. 16 This was followed up with the development of a manual on gender budgeting. There is also some reported information on gender budget initiatives of varying scales in the Republic of Korea, Thailand and Viet Nam, as well as in some Pacific Island countries, including Fiji and the Marshall Islands. Australia pioneered gender budgeting, but data and analysis on the portions of its education budgets allocated to promoting gender equality in education have proved very difficult to obtain. 2.2 Core indicators Gender parity in enrolment at all levels Considerable progress has been made in countries in the East Asia and Pacific region in raising enrolment rates and towards achieving gender parity, particularly at the primary education level and increasingly at the secondary education level as well. Of countries for which data were available, 14 reached part of the first target of EFA goal 5, achieving gender parity in primary education by 2005, while nine attained gender parity at the secondary education level. One country, the Republic of Korea, fully achieved the target, with gender parity in enrolment at both the primary and secondary education levels. Gender gaps in enrolment remain, however. At the primary education level, all of the countries which missed the 2005 gender parity target had lower proportions of girls enrolled than boys. But gender disparities were not to the disadvantage of girls in all cases. At higher levels of education secondary and tertiary the situation was more varied, with disparities to the disadvantage of boys in some countries and girls in others. In Cambodia and Lao PDR, far fewer girls are enrolled compared with boys at the secondary and tertiary education levels, and efforts are needed to raise the enrolment rates of girls to be on par with that of boys. On the other hand, in the Philippines, Malaysia, and Mongolia, the opposite is the case, with boys enrolment rates significantly lower than those of girls. 15 Review of Gender Budget Initiatives, Community Agency for Social Inquiry, p , and UNIFEM website section on gender budget initiatives. 16 Manual on Gender Budgeting in Malaysia, Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development, Malaysia and UNDP, Gender Equality in Progress Note