2. Managing self Organisational Management T-Kit
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- Lily Wright
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1 . Maagig self Orgaisatioal.1 Itroductio A youg perso is ofte i a maagemet positio withi a youth orgaisatio ot because s/he wats to be a maager, but because s/he has the opportuity to serve the orgaisatio for a limited period of time. It is therefore commo that such a perso has ot had maagemet traiig beforehad. Ofte this situatio is the first time the perso to has had to formally maage somethig. I this sectio we will cosider the eed to maage oeself i this ew situatio; copig with ew duties, ew people, ew emotios. Usually the mai reactio is to do thigs; tryig to start performig as soo as possible. I this T-kit we suggest you to take a miute to thik about yourself, your history, your ways of dealig ad relatig with others ad especially with your way of learig. At the ed of your maagemet period i the orgaisatio, you will discover that learig has bee oe of the mai outcomes- both i terms of skills ad attitudes acquired ad i terms of developmet of your ow potetial.. Persoal awareess..1 Learig to lear There are differet defiitios of learig, related to kowledge ad abilities or skills. There is o oe best method of learig. Learig might be described as gaiig a ew awareess about oe s potetial; maifested i ew kowledge, ew capacities, ew attitudes, ew skills ad especially i the combiig of all these ito what might be called professioalism. Learig is ot oly a itellectual activity. Too ofte i formal schoolig, pupils are taught study methods based oly o the use of itellect. Beig taught ca be cosidered a passive activity while learig is active. I teachig, the focus is ofte the teacher, while i learig it is the learer. There is a sigificat differece. Where is the focus i traiig? Are we like teachers? Peter Vall says that today because we use moder techologies ad more comfortable seats, we ted to believe that we do ot reproduce the formal school settig learig eviromet. Where is the differece betwee a formal educatio settig ad the oe we propose? I o-formal educatio, the term learig is preferred to teachig. Persoal learig ad learig how to lear become the the focus of self-developmet. The eviromet ad other people are extremely importat i learig as they form the cotext ad brig extra meaig to the learer. I today s society itellectual capital has replaced the more traditioal meaig of capital eeded for success i busiess or i life. Learig to lear is based o the recogitio that there are differet ways of learig ivolvig the whole perso icludig elemets of itellect, emotios, body ad thikig abilities. Suggestios for traiig Collect sayigs from differet cultures about learig, teachig, educatio ad traiig (iclude the Europea Uio defiitio of life-log learig). Classify ad check them. Cofrot differeces ad similarities... Experietial learig ad learig styles Peter Hoey ad Ala Mumford have idetified differet learig styles. Their theory says that each perso lears from specific situatios. Beig able to apply differet learig styles implies that the perso is able to lear from a variety of situatios ad experieces thus maximisig their learig opportuities. I some settigs the, traiig becomes a opportuity to reflect o our ow experiece ad lear from it. Hoey ad Mumford have developed a learig styles questioaire presetig 80 situatioal statemets aimed at helpig you focus o your 19
2 behaviour. The resposes to the statemets are processed to provide a assessmet of your preferred learig style. The origiators the give a explaatio of the four differet styles, the situatios best suited to those styles ad suggestios for dealig with situatios where less preferred styles would be more appropriate. You should be aware that this questioaire has bee developed i the USA ad some statemets may be culturally sesitive. Hoey ad Mumford developed Kolb s experietial learig circle, here trasformed ito a spiral to stress cotiual developmet. Accordig to this theory, what is importat is ot what happes to you, but what you do with what happes to you. Experietial learig is see as a 4 step process. It does ot matter how log it takes, the most importat is to go from the experiece phase to the thikig it over, to the critical aalysis ad geeralisatio to come to plaig of the use of the ewly acquired competece. Stage 1 Doig ad experiecig is part of everyday life but it ca also be a arraged opportuity. Stage Observig ad reflectig o what has happeed to you. Stage 3 Cocludig from the experiece ad geeralisig. Stage 4 Applyig the ewly acquired competece or plaig a ew experiece. Fig. OM-3 : Learig (circle/spiral) Doig Reflectig Doig Developmet of ew competece Observig Source : Hoey, Peter ad Mumford, Ala (199) The Maual of Learig Styles, p. 3, ISBN Adapted versio. 0
3 Fig. OM-4 : Learig styles stregths ad weakesses Activist stregths Flexible ad ope mided Happy to have a go Happy to be exposed to ew situatios Optimistic about aythig ew ad therefore ulikely to resist chage Weakesses Tedecy to take the immediately obvious actio without thikig Ofte take uecessary risks Tedecy to do too much themselves ad hog the limelight Rush ito actio without sufficiet preparatio Get bored with implemetatio/cosolidatio Reflector stregths Careful Thorough ad methodical Thoughtful Good at listeig to others ad assimilatig iformatio Rarely jump to coclusios Weakesses Tedecy to hold back from direct participatio Slow to make up their mids ad reach a decisio Tedecy to be too cautious ad ot take eough risks Not assertive they are ot particularly forthcomig ad have o small talk Theorist stregths Logical vertical thikers Ratioal ad objective Good at askig probig questios Disciplied approach Weakesses Restricted i lateral thikig Low tolerace foe ucertaity, disorder ad ambiguity Itolerat of aythig subjective or ituitive Full of should, ought ad must Pragmatist stregths Kee to test thigs out i practice Practical, dow to earth, realistic Busiesslike get straight to the poit Techique orieted Weakesses Tedecy to reject aythig without a obvious applicatio Not very iterested i theory or basic priciples Tedecy to seize o the first expediet solutio to a problem Impatiet with waffle O balace, task orieted ot people orieted. Source : Hoey, Peter ad Mumford, Ala (199) The Maual of Learig Styles, p , ISBN
4 The four learig styles: activist, reflector, theorist ad pragmatist are liked to the four stages of learig. For each stage there is a preferred learig style. A preferece for the activist style equips you for stage 1. A preferece for the reflector style equips you for stage. A preferece for the theorist style equips you for stage 3. A preferece for the pragmatist style equips you for stage 4. All-roud learers, or itegrated learers are clearly best equipped to maage all four stages. However, most people develop learig style prefereces that assist with some stages ad hider others. Those style prefereces very sigificatly affect the sort of activities that people lear best from. Activists lear best from experieces where: There are ew experieces, problems, opportuities from which to lear. They ca egross themselves i short here ad ow activities such as busiess games, competitive tasks, role playig exercises. They have a lot of the limelight, high visibility. They are throw i at the deep ed with a task they thik is difficult. Reflectors, o the other had, lear best from activities where: They are ecouraged to watch, thik, chew over activities. They are allowed to thik before actig, to assimilate before commetig. They have the opportuity to review what has happeed, what they have leared. They ca reach a decisio i their ow time without pressure ad tight deadlies. Theorists lear best from activities where: They have time to explore methodically the associatios ad iterrelatioships betwee ideas, evets ad situatios. They are i structured situatios with clear purposes. They have the chace to questio ad probe the basic methodology, assumptios or logic behid somethig. They are itellectually stretched. Pragmatists lear best from activities where: There is a obvious lik betwee the subject matter ad a problem or opportuity o the job. They are show techiques for doig thigs with obvious practical advatages curretly applicable to their ow job. They have the chace to try out ad practise techiques with coachig, feedback from a credible expert. They ca cocetrate o practical issues. Oce you kow your preferred learig style(s) it is importat to be clear about the relative stregths ad weakesses of each style. Selectig appropriate learig opportuities essetially ivolves fidig activities where stregths will be utilised ad where weakesses will ot prove too much of hadicap. The table o page 1 will help with you ow assessmet. Your preferred learig style has implicatios for you as a maager, learer ad traier; most importatly you eed to develop your uder-developed styles so that you ca lear i as wide a rage of situatios as possible. It is importat to remember that you ted to use your preferred learig style(s) while traiig or maagig. To work well with people with differet learig styles it is importat to use a mix of activities i lie with the 4 learig styles so that you ca provide opportuities for everybody. Suggestios for traiig Distribute the Hoey ad Mumford learig style questioaire * ad the scorig sheet without the defiitio of the learig styles. Group people accordig to the results obtaied from the questioaire Ask each group to idetify experieces where they have leared best ad create a profile of learig style by choosig oly commo elemets. Compare them with the learig styles idetified by Hoey ad Mumford. Please ote that i may cases people do have more tha oe preferred style. Subject to copyright. You ca fid the questioaire i Hoey, Peter ad Mumford, Ala (199)
5 ..3 Emotioal learig Experimets o the workig of emotios ad their failig have give attetio to the fact that emotios are importat i social life as they ifluece our attitude towards ourselves ad others. Eve though there is o agreemet about the origi of emotios, there is a growig evidece that fudametal ethical staces i life stem from uderlyig emotioal capacities. There are three mai approaches i studyig emotios: biological, cogitive ad costructivist. The biological approach gathers emotios i basic categories that are ager, fear, happiess, love, surprise, disgust ad sadess. Emotios are uiversal as they are biological propesities to act. The hypothesis of the facial feedback says that our feeligs are stregtheed by the awareess of our expressiveess ad the smilig stregthes our feelig of joy (Ekma). The cogitive approach says that each emotio comes with a geeral sese of excitemet ad the we classify them accordig to social covetios. Therefore we lear which emotios are allowed i which situatios. The biological propesities are shaped further by our life experiece ad our culture. Emotios are also ambiguous ad the choice of amig them is based o the cosesus of others (Schachter). The costructivist approach the affirms that emotios are oly social performaces govered by rules for proper emotioal expressiveess. Suggestios for traiig List the feeligs that your culture allows you to express. Thik of the feeligs your culture forces you or expects you to express i give situatios. Describe how you are allowed to express your feeligs. What differeces exist i expressig feeligs betwee geders? Compare such outcomes with other cultures. The studies above have ot yet solved the dichotomy betwee head ad heart; some poit to the pre-emiece of heart, some ot. There are acts of the emotioal mid ad acts of the ratioal mid. I a very real sese we have two mids, oe that thiks ad oe that feels. These two fudametally differet ways of kowig iteract to costruct our metal life. The two mids operate i tight harmoy for the most part, itertwiig their very differet ways of kowig to guide us through the world. These mids are semiidepedet faculties, each reflectig the operatio of distict, but itercoected, circuitry i the brai. I may or most momets these two mids are exquisitely coordiated; feeligs are essetial to thought, thought to feelig. But whe passios surge the balace tips. Golema suggests that i the huma brai there is a meetig poit betwee thought ad emotio, a crucial doorway to the deposit for the likes ad dislikes we acquire over the course of a lifetime. Cuttig oeself off from emotioal memory meas that emotioal reactios that have bee associated with it i the past are o loger triggered everythig takes o a grey eutrality. That meas that we ofte make mistakes as we do ot remember the emotios liked to past actios. Therefore feeligs are idispesable for ratioal decisios; they poit us i the right directio, where dry logic ca the be of less use. Emotioal learig sed sigals that streamlie the decisio by elimiatig some optios ad highlight others. The emotioal brai is ivolved i reasoig as is the thikig brai. The emotioal faculty guides our momet-to-momet decisios, the thikig brai plays a executive role i our emotios. The old paradigm held a ideal of reaso freed from the pull of emotio. The ew paradigm urges us to harmoise head ad heart. I additio as we explore the coectio betwee body, mid, ad spirit, we fid that our emotioal ad thikig states ifluece us physically, ad vice versa. Just observe your body laguage-whe you re feelig uplifted, your body feels light ad your eergy is more up. Whe you re depressed, you feel heavy ad your eergy is dow. Whe you re feelig vulerable, your shoulders cave forward, your arms ted to cross your body for protectio, ad so o. 3
6 Suggestios for traiig Ask people to lay dow o the floor by creatig a chai. The cotact poit is head agaist belly. The perso with the head o the belly of aother perso will feel the movemet of the belly ad it is automatically provoked to reproduce the same movemets. Ask the perso startig the chai to laugh ad you will experiece that everybody will start laughig oe after the other like domioes fallig dow. Put people i pairs, ask them to simulate feeligs usig differet expressios. Create a vocabulary for the expressio of feeligs...4 Learig to thik Is thikig a skill? Ca we lear how to thik ad how to use our thikig possibilities? You have two possible aswers accordig to what you believe. The first oe is to cosider thikig as a matter of itelligece determied by gees ad measurable with IQ tests. The secod oe is to cosider thikig as a skill that ca be improved by traiig ad practice. The two opposig views ca be combied rather simply by usig De Boo s defiitio thikig is the operatig skill through which itelligece acts upo experiece. This defiitio implies some cosideratios: Itelligece ca be a trap i the developmet of thikig skills. A highly itelliget perso ca take a view o a subject ad the use his or her itelligece to defed that view. The more itelliget the perso the better the defece of the view. The better the defece the less that perso sees ay eed to seek out alteratives or to liste to ayoe else. A secod aspect of the itelligece trap is that a perso who has grow up with the otio that he or she is more itelliget tha those aroud wats to get the most satisfactio from that itelligece. Reward for itelligece is to prove somebody else wrog. Practice is ot automatically followed by improvemet. There is a eed to pay direct attetio to the methods of thikig. Thikig is ot o the school curriculum because educatio gets caught up i the traditio trap. Those makig decisios have experiece ad values based oly o the past. Iformatio is give priority because it tells what to do. Thikig is cosidered impossible to teach separately, but oly liked to other subjects, thus deyig its ow value. Critical thikig is the most kow way of thikig. It comes from the Greek meaig judgig. It is articulated i three phases: aalysis, judgemet ad argumet. If we look at sciece ad techology, the successes come ot from critical thikig but from the possibility system that creates hypothesis ad visios. Perceptio is the most importat part of thikig. Perceptio is the way we look at the world. What thigs we take ito accout. How we structure the world. It seems ow likely that perceptio works as a self-orgaisig iformatio system. Such a system allows the sequece i which iformatio arrives to set up patters. Our thikig the remais trapped withi these patters. Thikig tools are as ecessary as tools for ay activity. The tools are attetio directig tools. Without them attetio follows the patters laid dow by experiece ad we remai trapped. Thik of a coloured map. If you eed to locate a motorway, your attetio will be attracted by the lie i the colour you kow represets a motorway. Now you are i a room. Somebody ivites you to close your eyes ad asks you to ame all the gree objects i the room. Probably you will have difficulty i amig all of them. These examples show that thikig is more fuctioal whe it is directed. Difficulties arise as we use differet levels of thikig such as logic, iformatio, sesitivity ad creativity at the same time. This causes cofusio i ourselves ad i commuicatig with others. For istace, if whe makig a decisio we let out thoughts evaluate what we would like to do, what should be avoided, our feeligs, etc. we could fid ourselves i a deadlock. Edward De Boo has suggested six thikig roles which he describes i terms of six coloured hats: 4
7 The white hat expresses umber, data, objectivity, the kow. It is ot allowed to express persoal opiio. It is just allowed to liste without discussio. What is said is ot always valid for everybody, it is just a idicatio to be cosidered as such, i a eutral way. The red hat allows expressio of emotios ad feeligs without justificatio ad without a logic base. We do ot eed to guess other people feeligs, we ca ask about it. The possibility to freely express feeligs allows us to tur emotios o ad off i just a few secods, without deyig, hidig or modifyig them. The black hat expresses the egative-logic; whatever logically caot fuctio i the give situatio. It ca be cosidered pessimistic but it is logical ad ot emotioal. It explais why somethig caot work ad highlight risks, dagers ad gaps i a give situatio or project. This way of thikig cofrots past experieces, puts them i relatio to the preset ad values the possibility of future mistakes or failures. The yellow hat expresses positive thikig, optimism ad is costructive. It evaluates the positive aspects of a idea, project or give situatio. You should fid as may good reasos as possible to support your optimistic declaratio. Should your idea ot be fully supported by your declaratios, it is ayway worth expressig them. The gree hat expresses the creative thikig without cosiderig prejudices, logic, critiques or iterpretatios. Its aim is to look for alteratives behid what should logically chose. It is a movig idea; jumpig from oe to aother. It provokes us to get off the usual thikig patters. The blue hat serves to cotrol the thikig itself. It idetifies the ecessary thikig to explore the topic. It orgaises all the other roles, focusig o what is eeded to deal with ad to classify all aspects of the give situatio, by askig the appropriate questios. It performs the co-ordiatio role, supervisig ad summig up, solvig the coflict ad gettig to coclusios. The hats are tools ad rules at the same time. This classificatio of thikig is a model but remember that the map is ot the territory! The exercise below will help to clarify the use of the model...5 Prejudice Suggestios for traiig Idividually or i a group idetify a problem, a situatio or a project. Wear the hats oe after the other ad assume the role give. Freely express yourself (protected by the role). Do ot argue with the others (people ad/or roles). Wear the blue hat ad come to coclusios. Before talkig about prejudice it is ecessary to defie attitudes as a tedecy to make a quick positive or egative reply to a specific object or group of objects. I a attitude there is the cotet (the object) ad a value judgemet, either positive or egative, towards the object. Attitudes are persistet. As prejudice has such characteristics, thus it ca be cosidered a attitude. There are three mai aspects of prejudice: The cogitive aspect: the total of cocepts ad perceptios towards a object or group of objects. The emotioal aspect: feeligs towards a object or group of objects. The behavioural aspect: actios towards a object or group of objects. We ca defie a prejudice as a specific positive or egative attitude i dealig with a perso whe such perso belogs to a specified category of people. Whe the prejudice is traslated ito a specific behaviour we ca talk about discrimiatio. Discrimiatio ca have two egative effects: (a) a attack to the self-esteem (whe you feel iferior, you thik that you have o value) ad (b) lookig for self-failure as commitmet to success is proportioal to the perceived probability of success. Discrimiatio ca also be positive: This is a importat elemet to cosider i a maagemet eviromet: we behave accordig to expectatios ad thus we fulfil prophecies by validatig the prejudices. 5
8 There are 4 elemets of social ifluece i a maagemet (or traiig) situatio: The emotioal eviromet the positive cosideratio towards some people Iformatio the higher degree of iformatio released to some Chage i behaviour more attetio give to those we love most The degree of feedback a clearer ad costat judgemet give to the preferred colleagues (or traiees). Suggestios for traiig Idetify the prejudices towards a category of people you belog to. Classify them as positive ad egative, itetioal ad o-itetioal, covertly ad overtly. List those you reiforce by sayig them or behavig accordig to them. List those you oppose ad how you express your oppositio. List what you do to covice others ot to say or behave accordig to the prejudices you are agaist. There ca also be istitutioal discrimiatio: Research has show that the effect of discrimiatio varies accordig to the place i history. Today there is more uderstadig about may groups of people ad social ifluece has lesseed its pressure towards some of them. There is also more awareess about oe s rights ad less fear about claimig them. As prejudice is expressed i behaviour, chage i behaviour does ot always correspod to chage i attitude. Ofte chage is difficult because prejudice is socially accepted ad see as a way to recruit ew frieds or to build positio. Prejudice is ormal, degeeratio is ot ormal. Problems arise whe we wat to impose somethig such as our good ideas, traditios ad so o. The degeeratio of prejudice is liked to the power you have ad the use you make of it i maagemet or traiig situatios. You will fid out that there are stages i dealig with prejudice. The first step is the ist situatio to recogise ad to ackowledge that prejudice exists i ourselves ad i other people. The secod step is the o-ist situatio to refrai from behavig accordig to ad takig distace from prejudice. Third step is the ati-ist situatio to actively ivite other to recogise their prejudice ad to chage their behaviour. From ist to ati-ist is a log jourey. For further readig you ca also cosult the o itercultural learig. Suggestios for traiig Divide the group i pairs ad give to each perso a role take from discrimiated category of people. I tur oe perso takes the role of the discrimiated perso or the role of a perso agaist the discrimiated oe. Oe perso has the role to attack ad to say all sort of stereotypes agaist ad the other has the role of defedig her/himself. It should last aroud 5 miutes per roud. Questios for the debriefig : Did you chage your behaviour? How did you feel whe you were attackig? How did you feel whe you were discrimiated agaist? Were you better equipped i defedig yourself or i attackig? 6
9 .3 Maagig your persoal resources The first part of this sectio has allowed you to become aware ad acquaited with the discovery of yourself ad your potetial. This part will go ito techiques o how to maage your persoal resources..3.1 From competece to professioalism Essece ca be described as what is oe s ow ; the potetial with which we were bor, rather tha what we have acquired through our educatio, our ideas or our beliefs. The eviromet both physical ad huma ad the relatios i the eviromet provide us with the opportuities that if take, ca help i developig our potetial ad thus becomig competet. The relevace of some competecies varies by time to time. It is therefore very importat to idetify the competecies ecessary to our stage of developmet through a attetive aalysis of what is happeig aroud us. Competece is the combied result of values, skills, attitudes ad kowledge ad experiece. Values are the behavioural resposes or actios accordig to the moral beliefs held by a idividual or a orgaisatio. Skills are the abilities that eable you to do somethig. What you have i your mid that comes out of your hads. Attitudes are about thikig somethig, this thikig makes us feel somethig ad we react accordigly. Kowledge is about iformatio ad uderstadig is about the ability to maipulate ad apply kowledge. Aother way to describe competece is that it is the result of kowig, doig ad beig. Le Boterf suggests that however we describe competecies, they do ot have a life i themselves. They are othig if ot liked to a idividual that makes them alive. It should also be said that there is a differece betwee actig competetly ad the resources ecessary for doig so. Resources ca be exteral data, idividuals, orgaisatios or iteral kowledge, skills, qualities, experieces, emotios, etc. professioalism is the the ability to combie resources for competet actios. Huma beigs do ot thik accordig to a liear structure or just with logical operatios: metaphors ad aalogies have a role. Huma beigs react to sigs with a o fixed a priori meaig ad with a ulimited umber of meaigs. Therefore we caot cotrol the coditios favourig the combied kowledge. The real professioal competece lays i the highly probable forecastig. There is o oe sigle way to be professioal i frot of a give situatio. Differet behaviours ca be all good or bad. Professioalism lays i the ability to describe complex pictures ad situatios by pickig up the key elemets to iterpreter it without reducig or simplifyig it. The richer the image is, the higher the professioalism. I such a complex situatio as the reality of today, plaig ca be replaced by avigatig. I order ot to fall ito a sort of waderig, it is importat to fix some key poits. I that sese maagig ad traiig are ot about cotrol but they become a way of givig meaig, sese of directio ad motivatig. As we caot be i cotrol of our life, this philosophy helps you to recogise what you ca ad caot. There are some tools you ca use to make it happe, e.g. persoal developmet plas (settig persoal objectives), empowermet plas (guided takig of resposibility) or self-evaluatio plas like mappig competecies as described below. Idetify your best competecies (kowledge, skills ad attitudes). Put them o the Competecies map ad score them (0=othig, 1= very low, 5=very good). Note the peaks ad troughs. Idetify a job or task you eed to perform ad list the competecies eeded for it. Compare your map with the competecies eeded. Look at the gaps. Idetify opportuities for improvemet. Do it agai after a while ad look at the differeces i listig ad scorig competecies or compare it with those of your colleagues to seek for complemetarities. 7
10 Suggestios for traiig Self developmet pla Idetify maximum 5 aspects of your life you do ot wat to reouce. Idetify maximum 5 aspects of your life you are ot satisfied with. Try to lik them ad idetify possible paths to get to your self developmet pla. thoughts with. Self motivatio is a skill essetial i your work as difficulties sometimes are see as isurmoutable because everythig seems out of our cotrol. Motivatio is the force that drives you to do thigs. It is liked to emotios, eeds ad expectatios. The cocept of eed that motivates people has bee the foudatio of most motivatio theory. I our society, for most of us, most basic eeds have bee met food, clothig, somewhere to live. There are middle-level eeds job security, a reasoable wage, reasoable workig coditios. Higher level eeds will motivate people i a lastig way. These are the eeds to belog to a group, social status, the eed to be i cotrol of oe s life, the eed for self-fulfilmet ad pride, the eed for persoal developmet. Further otes o motivatio i the work place ca be foud i the sectio o Maagig People. SWOT aalysis Idetify your Stregths. Idetify your Weakesses. Idetify Opportuities offered by the eviromet. Idetify the Threats offered by the eviromet..3. Self-motivatio Youth activities are maily doe i groups. Decisio-makig is a group process i youth orgaisatios. Structure always ivolves committees. Meetig is always a source of emotios, pleasure ad workload. Preparatio ad implemetatio of the decisios is ofte delegated to oe perso. Everybody relies o her/him for the daily maagemet of the orgaisatio. Motivatio comes alog with group activities, but it is ot always preset i workig aloe whe you feel the pressure of the etire orgaisatio o your shoulders ad especially you do ot have aybody ext to you to share your Ofte youth workers ad voluteers complai that their middle level eeds are ot fulfilled, but they stay ad keep o doig their job. Is the volutary world differet from other orgaisatios as far as motivatio is cocered? I the busiess sector people ted ot to stay with a orgaisatio uless middle level eeds are fulfilled. Try to thik about the elemets that ecourage you to perform better. Praise is a powerful motivator. If obody is aroud you, praise yourself, aloud. Sometimes it is eough to say well doe! or reward yourself by doig somethig you especially like. Pavlov itroduced the expectacy elemet ito motivatioal theories. His studies proved that a suitable reward praise, a bous, approval of colleagues after the required performace will soo lead to expectatios that a suitable performace will brig its ow rewards. I the same way a usuitable performace ca lead to expectatios of disapproval, loss of a bous, etc. The studies of Mayo ad Herzberg showed that motivatio stems from the cosideratio give to people ad their ivolvemet i the decisio makig process. The feelig of beig importat or ecessary to the orgaisatio is a high motivatio factor. 8
11 Suggestios for traiig Ask yourself this questio What or who motivates me? List who ad what i separate lists ad group them. If the who list is bigger tha the what list, start there. Idetify some areas where you feel that you could be motivated by the who idetified. Help them to motivate you. I this way, helpig them to the right attitude towards you, you ca greatly icrease your ow motivatio. You also have the power to icrease your ow motivatio. You ca follow these steps: Realisig your ow worth write a five lie descriptio of yourself, emphasisig your good poits. Most people fid this extremely difficult as culture teaches us to be modest! Try to fid 10 good poits. If ot you might like to try the diary method. Record each day i a small pocket diary that you carry with you, three evets that you really ejoyed. It will help to remid you about your te good poits! Realisig that you ca chage thigs is questio of movig from the duty stage to the will stage. I do thigs ot because I am obliged to but because I wat to. Thikig positively first of all believe that you will succeed. Failure is a adult cocept, childre are ot afraid of mistakes. Idetify a aspect you would like to chage, write it dow ad the idetify the barriers to this chage ad write them dow. Are you sure that these barriers are isurmoutable. Settig your goals write them dow ad remid them to yourself! Decide o the meas to achieve them ad set a time scale. Do ot hurry this process ad remember that motivatio is ifectious!.3.3 Maagig time Time maagemet is oe aspect of good maagemet ad is oe of the most importat elemets i self-maagemet. It is importat for everyoe ad especially for those who have resposibilities for others. What is time? Time is our most importat resource ad it is importat to utilise it fully Time is the oly resource we caot icrease. Oce it is goe it caot be regaied. Everyoe has the same amout of time, all the time that is available is 4 hours each day. The way we use it is the oly thig that differs. Stealig time from others is iexcusable. If you create respect for your ow time you will respect other people s time. Always beig late for appoitmets or meetigs meas that you are wastig other people s time while they wait for you to arrive. At differet momets of the day, poits i your life, time seems to pass at differet speeds. Whe you are absorbed i your work or havig a good time it goes quickly. Whe you are bored or frustrated it passes slowly. There are some basic priciples i time maagemet. They ca help you i idetifyig criteria to improve your time maagemet. Plaig Learig to pla each day, week, moth, year is the first step i learig to cotrol your workload. This also eables you to start beig realistic about how much work you take o, how much time it will take ad what it will ivolve. Prioritisig Learig to distiguish betwee urget ad importat tasks ad assessig which aspects of your work should take priority is essetial whe tryig to maage your time. A good workig system Learig to establish a daily routie, dealig with paperwork effectively, telephoe calls, commuicatio with colleagues ad filig, all play a importat part. Usig your diary as a tool Your diary plays a essetial part i maagig your time ad should iclude plas, actio lists, importat otes ad ay other relevat iformatio cocerig your job. 9
12 Learig to say NO Oe of the reasos we become overloaded is that we have a automatic tedecy to say yes whe people ask us to do thigs. Learig to say NO is oe of the golde rules of time maagemet. Nothig is so importat that we caot take a few miutes to assess whether or ot it would be realistic for us to agree. Am I the right perso for the job? Ofte we agree to do somethig without assessig whether or ot we have the skills, kowledge or cofidece to do what we are beig asked. We ofte just feel guilty ad say yes. It is useful to assess whether or ot the task fits i with your overall resposibilities or is i lie with your job descriptio. This exercise, if it becomes a daily exercise, will help you i ratioally usig your time. You should ot forget that the cocept of time chages accordig to latitude. I some cultures beig late is uacceptable, i others is allowed or expected. Therefore our perceptio of time is ot the same everywhere. Time is also liked to the cocept of quality, power ad to expectatios. I whatever latitude you live, it is importat for you to be aware of your way of usig your ad other people s time. Oly if you use your work time properly will you have time to rest! Irish poem Take the time to work, for it is the price of success. Take the time to thik, it is the source of stregth. Take the time to play, it is the secret of youth. Take the time to read, it is the seed of wisdom. Take the time to be friedly, for it brigs happiess. Take the time to dream, for it will carry you to the stars. Take the time to love, it is the joy of life. Take the time to be cotet, it is the music of the soul. Suggestios for traiig Braistorm a list of everythig you would eed i order to complete a task. Arrage the task list ito priority order i a time sequece. Decide who will complete the task. Estimate how log it would take to complete each task, give your existig workload. Establish ay additioal resources you may eed. Set a deadlie for each task. Trasfer tasks ito a daily task list i your diary. 30
13 Fig. OM-5 : A method to idetify your thieves of time True The followig questios should help you to cotrol your time at work ad to idetify your thieves of time Always Ofte Sometimes Rarely The telephoe bothers me whe I am i a meetig or preparig a importat documet Telephoe coversatios are almost always uecessarily log My assistats or colleagues iterrupt my activities to tell me their problems or to have a chat Visitors or vedors iterrupt my persoal work by turig up without warig Workig meals ad receptios make me feel heavy ad sleepy Meetigs last too log ad are too frequet The ageda of meetigs is o existet or badly prepared The computers break dow too ofte The secretaries are overworked My assistat calls me up durig the weekeds ad durig my family holidays I have a moutai of matters o my desk to deal with I fid it difficult to establish ad meet deadlies except whe uder pressure I have too may papers o my desk, the mail ad other readig take too much time I put off to the last momet the importat tasks which demad a great deal of cocetratio from me I ca t clearly defie my objectives ad priorities. They are cofused ad chageable I deal too ofte with secodary matters I do t make a daily work pla I do t delegate a part of my resposibilities to others I have a tedecy to wat to do thigs too well. I get too ivolved i details I ofte have to resolve problems which others could deal with just as competetly Add up the poits obtaied i each colum Multiply the total i each colum by the value which is allocated to it Calculate the geeral total = = = = X0 X1 X X3 = = = = = From 0-30 poits : You are lettig yourself be robbed every day by the thieves of time. As you do ot pla your time they are stealig your capital of time. From poits : You try to istall a security system to protect yourself from the thieves of time. But the system does ot work sufficietly or regularly eough for you to really succeed. From poits : You maage your time well eough but you otice some problems ad weak poits i your cotrol system through which the thieves could attempt a armed attack o your capital of time. From poits : Your capital of time is ot likely to fall ito the hads of the thieves. Cogratulatios, you are a model for all those who wat to lear to maage their time. Ackowledgemet of above diagram is made o a await claim basis. The copyright holder has ot bee traced. Ay iformatio eablig us to cotact the copyright holder would be appreciated 31
14 .3.4 Maagig stress Stress occurs whe there is a imbalace betwee a demad made o a perso ad the resources available to respod to the demad. The demad may be real (i.e. thigs outside the perso s cotrol). Likewise the resources may be real (facts) or perceived (what you thik, feel, imagie, etc). Resources iclude: Physical ability: health, fitess ad stregth. Itellectual ability: capacity for complex thikig ad problem solvig. Emotioal ability: accurately idetifyig feeligs ad costructively meetig eeds. Good stress ca have a positive impact o a perso. This form of stress is achieved whe the brai ad body feel challeged ad wat to exted i order to respod to the situatio. This is caused whe a perso is feelig as though s/he: 1. Has ideas of possible solutios to the challege ( Look at all these possibilities! );. Has the resources (iteral ad exteral) to solve the challege ( I ca do it! ); 3. Has some cotrol over what s happeig ("I have choices!"); 4. Has had sufficiet rest betwee his/her challeges. The severity of stress is the amout or level of stress that is felt as a result of a stress or evet or situatio causig you stress. There are certai factors which ifluece the degree of stress that is experieced, these have a impact o the perso s well beig both physically ad psychologically. The Factors are: Characteristics of the stressor Your perceptio of the stressor Each evet or situatio has certai characteristics that determie the severity that the stressor may or may ot have o us. The characteristics of the stressor ad the severity of stress which result, iclude the followig: Sigificace how critical ad importat the evet is to the idividual (deaths, failig a exam, break-up with boy/girlfried), ad how much chage will have to be dealt with. The greater the sigificace ad chage, the higher the impact of the stressor. Time legth if a stressor is cotiued over a log period of time, it will result i higher stress levels. For example, tiredess: isufficiet sleep over a exteded period of time will result i higher stress tha that caused by just oe ight of bad sleep. Cumulative Effect This is whe stressors are built up over a period of time without appropriate mechaisms to reduce or release the build-up. For example, a log series of little irritatios ad aoyaces could result i a massive blow-out betwee two people. Multiplicity A umber of stressors at oe time will result i higher stress levels. For example, a fight with oe s parets, fial exams aroud the corer ad loss of a loved oe will be experieced as much more stressful tha if each of these evets happeed separately. Approachig deadlie if a demad has bee made a few weeks or moths i advace of the deadlie, the degree of stress will icrease as the due date approaches. For example, if you are give a project assigmet two moths i advace, it will probably seem to far away to get worked up about. As the deadlie approaches, ad the work has ot bee completed, your stress level will icrease util you do somethig about the project. Each perso perceives a potetial stressor differetly. How a perso perceives the stressor, ad the amout of stress it ivokes depeds o your self-cocept, your body s stress tolerace, your age, ad your exteral resources. This sectio examies these i detail. Self-cocept This is based o the Theory of Iterpersoal Needs. It states that each perso has the followig emotioal eeds: The eed to discover our uique idetity as well as to be icluded (feel valued ad importat) because of this uique idetity. 3
15 The eed to have the power to cotrol or ifluece what we do ad what happes to us The eed for coectig with others ad feelig liked ad loveable. Because we have these eeds that oly other people ca meet, importat people i our lives ca ifluece who we become ad how we ed up feelig about ourselves. Whe these eeds are met i healthy ways, we feel valued for beig ourselves, competet, useful, admired, loved ad supported. The result is a positive self-cocept ad self-esteem. Whe these eeds are ot met, we ed up feelig worthless, useless or ulovable. The result is a egative self-cocept ad lack of self-esteem. Your self-cocept acts as a filter, ad results i you seeig the outside world i the same way as you feel iside. Poor self-cocept (i.e. miimal feeligs of worth toward yourself) may result i the perceptio that you are icapable of overcomig a challege. Whe faced with a situatio that eeds to be dealt with, you feel axiety ad fear because you are ot sure whether you will be able to hadle the situatio correctly, or eve if you will kow how to hadle it at all! If you feel loved ad positive about yourself, your strog feeligs of self-worth ad belief i your ability will give you that extra boost of stregth to cope i the face of a stressor! Positive self-cocept provides you with iteral resources that you ca call o whe dealig with a demad. It eables you to respod to stress. Body Stress Tolerace This refers to the amout of stress that your body is able to withstad without totally breakig dow. This has to do with your physical resources: how healthy your body is. This is determied by how fit you are, how much sleep you get ad how well you eat. Age Each developmetal stage that a perso goes through has its ow set of stressors. The ifat s mai developmetal task is to establish a sese of self ad to have his/her social/emotioal eeds met by family as metioed above. The pretee ad teeage years move the focus from family to peers i the form of social life ad school. May teeagers are stressed as a result of pressure to be cool ad to succeed. Socially, frieds ad popularity ca become a big stress if the youg perso does ot have as may frieds as s/he wats. S/he may adopt behaviours to look (ad feel) cool ad popular. At school, iteral ad exteral pressures arise. Adult stressors are qualitatively differet but still huge i umber. A sigle perso has to work out fiace-maagemet, livig security, work ad time for socialisig. With a family, these are all multiplied because oe has to worry about oeself, spouse ad childre. There are so may resposibilities that adults have, ad it is these pressures, frustratios ad coflicts that result i high stress levels. The retired perso has five mai situatios that iduce stress: loss of health, status, work, idepedece ad frieds, with icreased depedecy o others (fiacial, physical, emotioal). At differet times i oe s life, some stressors will have a greater impact tha others because of the perso s situatio, eeds ad life experieces. Exteral Resources Whe you have to deal with a stressful situatio, it ca decrease the amout of stress you feel if you have oe or more people to share your feeligs with. It is much harder to cope whe you feel as if you are all aloe ad have to deal with a situatio by yourself. Util ow we have bee talkig about stressors but we eed also to cosider the meliors positive idicators, the exact cotrary of the stressors. Meliors are experieces that help i creatig a status of well-beig ad happiess, icreasig a vital ier force. Probably memories of such evets are preset i your mid. Each perso ad each commuity should idetify ad recall their ow meliors as they will help the life of the commuity 33
16 Fig. OM-6 : A checklist to help you maage stress You may wat to prit this page ad keep it for future referece! Put it i your joural or diary to refer to it whe you are feelig itese emotios. It was desiged for school or college studets but the applicatios for maagers i Europea Youth Orgaisatios are obvious. Take a break, try to laugh with somebody (ot at somebody). Always ask questios whe you eed further explaatios. Maage ad pla your time so work ad play time is balaced. Uderstad that sometimes you will ot be able to do all that you wat to do (i.e. sometimes school work eeds to take the place of partyig!) Look at how you use time: do ot waste optimal/prime thikig ad creative time watchig TV or readig the ewspaper, rather save those for the time of day whe your brai is least eergetic. Be active outside, breathig fresh air, as much as possible (eed oxyge for effective brai fuctioig). Do t procrastiate whe it comes to doig homework, projects ad studyig. Write dow all that you eed to do before you start, it eables you to have a full picture of what eeds to be doe! If you are proe to procrastiatio, orgaise a study-buddy ad you each check up o each other every hour or so Exercise to circulate blood with oxyge, helpig utriets get to brai. Also, exercisig uses up the icreased adrealie, sugar, etc. that has bee released due to stress Set bite-size goals ad time limits so you ca see your progress ad keep movig forward. Eat healthy food, it helps you grow smarter brais! Drik as much water as possible (good for brai fuctioig). Talk to people you trust to get the stress out of your system 34
17 .3.5 Maagig commuicatio Everythig we do tells somethig about us words, actios, gestures, way of lookig, etc. Not oly words have symbolic or covetioal meaig but everythig has a meaig give by the culture ad the cotext i which it is used. Sometimes we do ot use the same symbols or whe we do we wrogly assume that the iterpretatio of symbols will be the same. I commuicatig, feeligs, perceptios, past experiece, history ad expectatios have a bigger role tha words as they provide oise or iterferece to the meas of commuicatio; distortig or reiforcig the message itself. I commuicatio there are always the seders ad the receivers. The receiver role is to iterpret the message set by the seder ad to sed back a cofirmatio message. It is therefore essetial that seder ad receiver use the same code, composed ot oly of words, but also gestures ad symbols. Attetio should the be paid ot oly to the words but to all commuicatio system aroud you. Fig. OM-7 Johari widow Kow to self Ukow to self Ope Ask (feedback) Blid Kow to others Tell (disclosure) Ukow to others Hidde Ukow Ackowledgemet of above diagram is made o a await claim basis. The copyright holder has ot bee traced. Ay iformatio eablig us to cotact the copyright holder would be appreciated. 35
18 Ay commuicatio, i order to be effective should cosider the followig elemets: Cotets what you wat to commuicate Media what is the best method of commuicatig i this situatio (spoke, writte, images, simulatio, exercise). Sigificace what is the meaig for each participat ad for the group Directio is the message give with possibility of reply or is just a commuicatio. Effect check it with the feedback ad the adjust the commuicatio. This will help you to move from a liear commuicatio system ito a circular oe. Cosider ow the cotext physical ad social eviromet, iterpretatio of the participats, idetity (roles ad fuctios) of themselves ad of the others, previous evets ad expectatios. The cotext will allow you to better uderstad the commuicatio because it allows predefied behaviour accordig to shared rules. The Iceberg model detailed i sectio 1 clarifies this further. I a multi-cultural eviromet it is importat to double check the messages give. Ofte whe speakig a foreig laguage we use the same words with differet meaigs as we try to adapt them to our ow ative laguage. Askig questios becomes a useful tool for makig sure that you have uderstood ad that your message is uderstood properly. Givig feedback is a art ot oly a tool for a better uderstadig. The Johari s Widow, amed after the first ames of its ivetors, Joseph Luft ad Harry Igham, is oe of the most useful models available whe describig the process of huma iteractio. A four paed widow divides persoal awareess ito four differet types, as represeted by its four quadrats: ope, hidde, blid, ad ukow. The lies dividig the four paes groupig aspects of our self which are kow or ukow to us ad kow or ukow to others are like widow shades, which ca move as a iteractio progresses. Some degree of self-disclosure beefits relatioships, icreases self-esteem ad leads to a more stable self-image. By chagig what is i oe pae, you chage what is i the others. If you seek feedback from people, the you will lear thigs about yourself that you did t kow before, but others were aware of. Thus, those thigs are shifted from the Blid Pae ito the Ope Pae. If you give other people feedback about yourself, you will shift thigs from the Hidde Pae to the Ope Pae. This all ivolves self-disclosure, a willigess to put your trust i others. It ivolves takig risks, as we reveal thigs to others which we have kept private up to ow. I our society there are various limitatios o self-disclosure: people of higher status geerally reveal less about themselves to people of lower status; wome geerally reveal more to wome, tha they do to me. Self-disclosure is ofte see as a idicator of positive metal health. It implies trust i others ad self-acceptace, it reduces the eed for defesiveess ad the potetial for embarrassmet. It shows self-cofidece ad is ofte reciprocated. By revealig somethig about yourself, you are likely to ecourage people to reveal somethig about themselves i retur. You will also get to kow who you are you ca discover that features of yourself, which you fid embarrassig or shameful, are cosidered by others to be etirely acceptable; but you will ot lear that uless you re willig to reveal somethig. The process of elargig the ope quadrat is called self-disclosure, a give ad take process betwee me ad the people I iteract with. Typically, as I share somethig about myself (movig iformatio from my hidde quadrat ito the ope) ad if the other party is iterested i gettig to kow me, they will reciprocate, by similarly disclosig iformatio i their hidde quadrat..3.6 Maagig chage There are as may differet ways of maagig chage as there are kids of chage. Chage is about ucertaity. Chage maagemet is the process of movig from the curret state to the visio of the future ad ivolves a degree of trasitio which may also result i pai. I this chapter we are talkig about persoal chage. 36
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